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PARSING MADE £ A3V 

UNFOLDING THE PRINCIPLES 
OF THE 

SNGXiISH UJNTGUiiGE 

WITH CONSISTENCY AND REGULARITY, 

AND EXHIBITING 
MORE CONFORMABLE THAN ANY OTHER, 



TO THE DEF1NITI 



>ji©ic 3 




Da facikm cursum, 
"Smile on my first atteiigtf and Wtfiaty bold design," 



S7 D'ARCT A, rBfiSTEH. 



asalttmore: 

PRINTED BY BENJAMIX EDES? 

Corner of Calrert &f Marke*-«treets, 

1831, 



0^ 



$tyl 



Entered according to the Act of Congrese in the jeer 1831 
by D* Ajict A, Frkkch, in the Clerk' » Office of the Dit triet Court 
of Maryland. 



PREFACE. 



"Cases which custom has left dubious, are certainly within the 
grammarian's province. Here, he may reason and remonstrate, 
on the ground of derivation, analogy, and propriety; and his rea- 
sonings may refine and improve the language." Murray. 

IN laying down a set of rules, the direct object 
of which is, to teach young persons to express 
themselves with clearness and with strength; 
which are designed to promote solidity of mind, to 
oppress feebleness of sentiment, and to correct 
the wildness of imagination; nothing can be more 
important than to guard against inconsistencies 
and absurdities, and against the errors of reason- 
ing and the seductions of sophistry. 

It is an error to suppose that the rules and ob- 
servations contained in Murray's Grammar, or, in- 
deed, in any of our grammars, will, if carefully, 
studied, improve the minds of youth, or enable 
them to speak or write with propriety or preci- 
sion. 

Do not the following passages, which, in sub- 
stance, are to< be found in all our English gram- 
mars, involve absurdities of the grossest nature? 
"The present tense, preceded by the words when, 
before, after, as soon as, &c. is sometimes used to 
point out the relative time of a future action: as, 
i When he arrives he will hear the news; "He will hear 
Ihe news before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, o^ 



at farthest, soon after he arrives;' 4 The more [that} 
she improves, the more amiable she will be.' "-— 
Murray^s Grammar. 

u The perfect tense, preceded by the words 
when, after, as soon as, &c. is often used to denote 
the relative time of a future action: as, 'When I 
have finished my letter, I will attend to his request;' 
*I will attend to the business, as soon as I have fin* 
ished my letter. 5 " — Ibid. 

"That part of the verb which grammarians call 
the present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a fu- 
ture signification." — Ibid. 

But we are told that these forms of expression 
are anomalies; and so, indeed, they appear to be, 
according to the arrangements of the moods and 
tenses that have generally been made by our 
grammarians. 

Would it not, then, be a very desirable improve- 
ment, to raise these forms to the rank of regular 
constructions, by arranging a theory which may 
justly claim the merit of rendering the whole sys- 
tem of the tenses consistent and regular; and of 
being more conformable than any other, to the de- 
rations of the tenses? Such a theory, it is pre- 
sumed, will be found in the following little work. 

Many other improvements tending to simplify 
the grammar of our language, and, consequently, 
to facilitate the progress of the learner, have been 
introduced. For the materials of a large portion 
of my grammar, I must acknowledge myself in- 
debted to Mr. Goold Brown; of whose labours I 
have freely availed myself; and the brevity and 
perspicuity of whose notes and observations, to- 
gether with their simplicity and fluency of style, 
cannot fail, in general, to recommend themselves 
to the attention of every learner. I have, how- 
ever, differed so materially from Mr. Brown, on 
several -of the most important points of construe- 



FREFACK. 



tion, that I persuade myself our interests cannot 
by any means conflict. If there be any impro- 
priety in my having taken the liberty of copying 
so extensively from his grammar, he may rest as- 
sured that I am wholly unaware of it; and that, in 
such case, I shall be happy to make him any sat- 
isfaction or reparation in my power* Wherever 
I have transcribed from other authors, in order to 
elucidate or support the positions that I have ad- 
vanced, I have not omitted to insert their names. 

As some persons appear to be under an impres- 
sion that Murray's Grammar constitutes a good 
standard of the English tongue, and that, of course, 
no great improvement in this science can reason- 
ably be expected, I shall here subjoin a few ob- 
servations from writers whose opinions, on mat- 
ters of this description, are certainly entitled to 
respect. 

In a treatise, called Systematic Education, writ- 
ten by the Rev. W. Shepherd, Rev. J. Joyce, and 
the Rev. Lant Carpenter, LL. D. we find the fol- 
lowing passage: 

"We know no better elementary work on gram- 
mar, than Lindley Murray's. He has, indeed, in 
some instances, burdened the learner with unne- 
cessary additions to the simplicity of the English 
language; and, in our opinion, there is still room 
for improvement in his practical directions, and more 
■especially in his arrangement or classification. 
We would have the English language taught as it 
i$ y not fettered with restraints derived from lan- 
guages in which there is a great variety of flexion: 
and we wish to see practical grammars construct- 
ed upon correct scientific principles; though it may 
not be expedient to bring those principles too 
early in view." 

Mr. Murray himself, in speaking of the moods 
of verbs, makes the following pertinent observa- 
tions: : 



"From Grammarians who form their ideas, and 
make their decisions, respecting this part of Eng- 
lish Grammar, on the principles and construction 
of languages, which, in these points, do not suit 
the peculiar nature of our own, but differ con- 
siderably from it, we may naturally expect gram- 
matical schemes that are not very perspicuous, nor 
perfectly consistent, and which will tend more to perplex 
than inform the learner" 

In another place, he says: "This proper res- 
pect for the customary sense of words, does not, 
however, preclude improvements in language. 
We are not bound to adhere for ever to the terms, 
or to the meaning of terms, which were establish- 
ed by our ancestors." 

To these I will add an important truth, express- 
ed by Mr. James Brown, in his fourth preface to 
"The American Grammar:" 

"Nothing so effectually prevents improvement as a 
belief in present perfection." 

And the following, which was written by the 
celebrated Dr. Johnson: 

"Custom often makes men obstinate in absurdities" 

It is time to relinquish those foolish predilec- 
tions which some people entertain. By adhering 
to them so pertinaciously, they render themselves 
as just objects of ridicule, as the Dutch wagoner 
mentioned in "the Old Bachelor." 

I am very far from insinuating that my gram- 
mar should be employed, or adopted, without a 
due examination, in preference to Mr. Murray's, 
or any other grammar now in use. But I insist 
that every person who feels an interest in the 
cause of Education, ought to read with attention 
and impartiality, every production within his 
reach, that purports to be an improvement upon 
the usual methods of imparting elementary in- 
structions; and that it is his duty to give a decided 



PREFAei. 



preference to that system which he finds to be the 
most regular and consistent. It betrays ignorance 
and stupidity to talk of established custom, in refer- 
ence to certain forms, as combinations of words, 
merely because Mr. Murray,, and, perhaps, a few 
other writers, have given them certain names or 
titles; which, in many cases, but ill accord with 
their nature and simplicity. 

In order to form a proper estimate of any per- 
formance of this kind, it is necessary to peruse 
the work itself. No prefatory remarks are suffi- 
cient for this purpose. I shall, therefore, conclude 
by referring the reader to the conjugation of the 
verb to write, to my remarks on the verbs need 
and dare, to the exercises for parsing, and to the 
rules of Syntax. If these be not found to possess 
iuperior merit, I confess that I have failed in my 
design. But if, on the contrary, it should appear 
evident, from an attentive examination of my re- 
marks, that I have corrected some important er- 
rors committed by my predecessors, and that I 
have thrown out some useful hints that had es- 
caped the research and ingenuity of many able 
writers on this subject, my object is attained; and 
a generous and discerning Public will award me 
the prize for which I am contending. "Truth i$ 
powerful, and it will prevail." 

To the Critics. 

"Who seeks for spots in Sol, must gaze 
Through mediums that obstruct his rays; 
Jealous Envy's jaundiced eye 
Hides beauties, trivial faults to spy. 
We own our work has some defects, 
'Tis what each candid mind expects; 
But has it marks of taste and talents! 
In mercy let that strike the balance." 

Charles County, Md. > 
November 20th, 1830. ) 



CONTENTS. 



Page 

Definition and Difision of 

the Subject - - 9 
PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY 9 
Of Letters - - 9 
Of Syllables and Words 10 
Of Spelling - - U 
Of Capital Letters - 13 
Rules for the use of Capi- 
tals 13 
PART II.— ETYMOLOGY 15 
Parsing - - - 16 
Examples for Parsing 16 
Of the Article - - 17 
Of the Noun - - 18 
Modifications - 19 
Persons - 19 
Numbers - 20 
Genders - - 22 
Cases - - 23 
Declension of Nouns - 24 
Of the Adjective - 25 
Modifications - - 26 
Regular Comparison - 26 
Comparison by Adverbs 27 
Irregular Comparison 27 
Remarks on the subject of 

Comparison 28 

Exercises for Parsing - 30 

Of the Pronoun 32 

Classes 32 

Modifications - - 34 

Declension of Pronouns 34 

Examples for Parsing - 37 

Of the Verb - - 38 

Of Compound Verbs - 39 

Modifications 40 

Remarks on the Moods 40 

Tenses - - - 46 

Persons and Numbers 48 

Conjugation of Verbs - 49 



Of the Participle 
Examples for Parsing 
Of the Adverb - 
Of the Conjunction 
Of the Interjection 



Pagr# 
78 
82 
84 
87 
89 



Examples for Parsing - 89 
Of Derivation - - 90 
PART III— SYNTAX 92 
Examples for Parsing 121 
General Rule of Syntax 129 
False Syntax under the Ge- 
neral Rule - - 129 
Examples for Parsing 130 
PART IV.— PROSODY 134 
OF Punctuation - 334 
Of the Comma - 134 
Of the Semicolon - 140 
Of the Colon - - 140 
Of the Period - - 141 
Of the Dash - - 142 
Of the Note of Interroga- 
tion V .- - - 142 
Of the Note of Exclamation 143 
Of the Parenthesis - 144 
Of the other Marks - 144 
Of Utterance - - 146 
Of Pronunciation - 146 
Of Elocution - - 147 
Of Figures - . - 148 
Figures of Etymology 148 
Figures of Syntax 149 
Figures of Rhetorick 151 
Of Versification - 154 
Of Iambic Verse - J 55 
Of Trochaic Verse - 157 
Of Anapaestic Verse - 158 
Of Dactylic Verse - 159 
Appendix I. of Style J 60 
Appendix II. of Poetic Dic- 
tion -.- 103 



223T$U3X MMSim 



English Grammar is the art of speaking and writ- 
ing the English language with propriety. 

It is divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, Ety- 
mology, Syntax, and Prosody. 



PART I. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the nature and powers of let- 
ters, and the just method of spelling words. 

OF LETTERS. 

A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 

The letters of the English language, called the Eng- 
lish Alphabet, are twenty-six in number: viz. A a, B b, 
C c, D d, E e, F f, G g, H h, I i, J j, K k, L 1, M m, N n, 
O o, P p, Q q, R r, S s, T t, U u,"V v, W w, X x, Y y, 
Zz. 

These letters are the representatives of certain arti- 
culate sounds, the elements of the language. — An arti- 
culate sound is the sound of the human voice, formed 
by the organs of speech. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly 
uttered by itself: as, a, e, o, which are formed without 
the help of any other sound. 
2 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be 
perfectly uttered without the help of a vowel: as, 6, d, 
f, I, which require vowels to express them fully. 

The vowels are, a, e, % o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

W and y are consonants when they begin a word or 
syllable; but in every other situation they are vowels. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid 
of a vowel. They are b.p, t, c7, k, and c and g hard. 

The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of them- 
selves. They are/, fo,j, I, ra, w, r, v, s, z, #, and c and 
g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are also 
distinguished by the name of liquids, from their readily 
uniting with other consonants, and flowing as it were 
into their sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced 
by a single impulse of the voice: as, ea in beat, ou in 
sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounc- 
ed in like manner as, eau in beau, iew in view. 

A proper diphthong is a diphthong in which both 
vowels are sounded: as oi invoice, ou in ounce. 

An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels 
sounded: as, ea in eagle, oa in boat. 

OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, 
pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and con- 
stituting a word, or part of a word: as, a, an, ant. 

A word is one or more syllables spoken or written as 
the sign of some idea. 

In every word there are as many syllables as there 
are distinct sounds: as, gram-ma-ri-an. 

A word of one syllable is termed a monosyllable; & 
word of two syllables, a dissyllable; a word of three syl- 
lables, a trisyllable; and a word of four or more sylla- 
bles, a polysyllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 

A. primitive word is one which cannot be reduced to 
any simpler word in the language; as, man, good, content, 

A derivative word is one that is formed from some 
simpler word in the language; as, manful, goodness, con- 
tentment. 

A compound word is one that is compounded of two 
or more simple words; as, watchman*, nevertheless. 

OF SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing words by their pro- 
per letters. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 



Monosyllables ending in f, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant; as, staff, mill, pass: except if, of, as, 
was, has, gas, yes, is, his, this, us, and thus. 



Monosyllables ending with any consonant but f I, or s, and 
preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant, ex- 
cepting add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz* 



Words ending with ?/, preceded by a consonant, form the plu- 
lals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past partici- 
ples, comparatives and superlatives, by changing y into i: as, spy, 
spies; I carry, thou carriest; he carrieth, or carries; carrier, car- 
ried; happy, happier, happiest. 

Before ing, y is retained, that i may not be doubled: as, pity, 
pitying. Words ending in it, dropping the e, change i into y, for 
the same reason: as, die, dying. But y pieceded by a vowel, in 
such instances as the above, is not changed: as, boy, bays; 1 cloy, 
he cloys, cloyed, &c. except in lay, pay, say; from which are 
formed laid, paid, and said; and their compounds, unlaid, un- 
paid, unsaid, &e. 



Words ending with y preceded by a consonant, upon assum- 
ing an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly 
change y into i: as, happy, happily, happiness. But when ?/ is 
preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed: as, coy, coyly; boy, 
boyish; annoy, annoytr, &e. 



X2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Monosyllables, and words accented on ihe la3t syllable, ending 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that 
consomnt, when they take another syllable beginning with a 
vowel: as, wit, witty; thin, thinnish; to abet, an abettor; to begw, 
a beginner. 

Bat if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding 
syllable, lire consonant remains single: as, toil, toiling; offer, of- 
firings 



Words ending with any double letter but I, and taking ness, less, 
ly 01 fa I, after them, preset ve the letter double: as, harmless ness r 
carelessly, slifiy, successful, &c. But those words which end with 
double I, and take ness,less. ly, ox ful, after them, generally omit 
one I: as, fulness, fully, skilful, &c. 



Ness, less, ly and/wZ, added to words ending with silent e, do 
not cut it off: as. paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful; except in a 
few words: as, duly, truly, awful. 

RULE VIII. 

Ment, added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves 
the c, fiom elision: as, abatement, chastisement, fye. The words,. 
judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations from the 
rule. 

Ment, changes y into i, when preceded by a consonant: as 
accompany, accompaniment', merry, merriment. 

RULE IX. 

Able and idle, when incorporated into words ending with si- 
lent e, almost always cut it off: as blame, blamable; cure, cura- 
ble; sense, sensible, fyc. : but if c or g soft comes before e in the 
qriginal word, the e is then preserved in words compounded with 
able: as peace, peaceable; change, changeable, 8?c. 

RULE X* 

When m^ or ish is added to words ending with silent e, the 
e is almost universally omitted : as, place, placing; white, whit- 
ish, fyc. 



Compounds generally retain the orthography of the simple 
words which compose them : as, hereof \ wherein , horseman, re~ 
cally uphill.* 



* In a treatise, called Systematic education, written by the 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Capitals are used for the sake of eminence and dis- 
tinction. 

RULES FOR THE USE OF CAPITALS. 

RULE I. 

The titles ofbooks, and the heads of their principal divisions, 
should be printed in capitals. 



The first word of every distinct sentence, should begin with 
a capita). 



The appellations of the Deity, should beam with capitols: as, 
God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being. 

Rev. W. Shapherd, Rev. J. Joyce, and the Rev. Lant Carpen- 
ter, L L. D. are found the following observations on Mr. Murray's 
Exercises. — "At the end of the exercises on Syntax, are some 
rules which are very useful on punctuation and the qualities of 
style. These may, with great benefit, be employed in the same 
way;" (that is, in the same way as the exercises on Syntax; they 
may be written 'by adults, not pupils;') but we can by no means 
recommend the use of his exercises on Orthography. Their di- 
rect, and, we think, necessary tendency, is to confuse the recol- 
lection of the visible appearance of woids; and thereby to lessen, 
instead of increasing the facility and accuracy of spelling. To 
acquire correctness in orthography, the best way is to write from 
memory or from dictation, or to write translations from other lan- 
guages: to employ a good dictionary, (Walker's for instance) in 
all cases of doubt; and, which will be found very beneficial, to 
keep a register of all words wherein a difficulty is felt, and often 
to review those which have been entered. The mere transcrib- 
ing of passages from manuscript or printed books, will also be 
found of great advantage, and it is assuredly much better to write 
from correctly spelt copies, than to correct what is spelt wrong. 
However, Mr. Murray's Grammar will furnish some useful direc- 
tions in orthography. 

To these sound observations, "the Academician," (from which 
excellent work I have copied the preceding extract) adds the 
following: — 

"We do not approve, in the least, of false exercises and 
Keys, or false orthography for the use of scholars: they encour- 
age idleness, inattention and error; every good instructor would 
reject them," 
2* 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR^ 



Titles of office or honor, and proper names of every descrip- 
tion, should begin with capitals: as, Chief Justice Halt, William^ 
London, the Park, the Albion, the Spectator, the Thames. 



The name of an object personified, when it conveys an idea 
strictly individual, should begin with a capital: as, Flattery, 
whose nature is to deceive and betray, should be avoided as the 
poisonous adder. 

N. B. Mr. Murray considers the application of the personal 
relative whose improper, in the last example. His correction, 
however, would spoil the sentence. 



Adjectives derived from proper names, should begin with 
capitais: as, Newtonian, Grecian, Romof. 

RULE VII. 

The pronoun I, and the interjection O, should be capitals, 

RULE VIII. 

Every line in poetry, should begin with a capital. 



The first word of an example, or of a direct quotation, should 
begin with a capital: as, "Remember this maxim: 'Know thy- 
self.'" "Virgil says, 'Labour conquers all things/" 



Other words of particular importance, and such as denote 
the principal subject of discourse, may be distinguished by capi- 
tals. 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

PART II. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats of the different parts of speech, 
and their classes and modifications. 

The Parts of Speech, or sorts of words, in English, 
are ten; namely, the Article, the Noun, the Adjective^ 
the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, the 
Conjunction, the Preposition and the Interjection. 

1. An Article is a word placed before nouns, to limit 
their signification- the articles are the and a or an. 

2. A Noun is the name of any person, place, or 
thing, that can be known or mentioned: as, George, 
York, man, apple, truth. 

3. x\n Adjective is a word added to a noun, and ge- 
nerally expresses quality: as, A wise man] a new book, 

4. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun: as, 
The boy loves his book; he has long lessons, and he 
learns them well. 

5. A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to 
04 acted upon: as, I am, I rule, I am ruled. 

6. A Participle is a word derived from a verb, par- 
ticipating the properties of a verb and an adjective: as, 
ruling, ruled, having ruled. 

7. An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a partici- 
ple, an adjective, or another adverb; and generally ex- 
presses time, place, degree, or manner: as, They are 
nozv here, studying very diligently. 

8. A Conjunction is a word used to connect words 
or sentences in construction, and to show the depen- 



1G ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

dence of the terms so connected: as, Thou and he are 
happy, because you are good. 

9. A Preposition is a word used to express some re- 
lation of different things to each other, and is generally 
placed before a noun or a pronoun: as, The paper lies 
before me, on the desk. 



10. An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely 
indicate sc 
as, Oh! alas! 



to indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: 



PARSING. 

Parsing is the resolving of a sentence according to 
the definitions and rules of grammar. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

(CHAPTER I.) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish and 
define the different parts of speech. Thus: 

The patient ox submits to the yoke, and meekly performs the 
labour requited of him. 

The . . is an article. An article is a word placed before 

nouns to limit their signification. 
patient . is an adjective. An adjective is a word added to a 

noun, and generally expresses 

quality. 
6t . , '■--'■• is a noun. A noun is the name of any person, 

place, or thing, that can be known 

or mentioned. 

Note. The pupil should proceed in this manner to the end of 
the* sentence. * 

LESSON I. 

The carpenter has a saw, and a chisel and a plane, 
and an adze, and a gimlet, and a hatchet, and a ham- 
mer, and nails, and a mallet. 

A peach, an apple, a pear, or an orange, is delicious. 



ETYMOLOGY. 17 

The swallow builds a nest of mud, and she lines it 
with soft feathers. 

LESSON II. 

Candour, sincerity, and truth, are amiable qualities. 

Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplish- 
ed and flourishing manhood. 

Industry is needful in every condition of life*- the 
price of all improvement is labour. 

Sloth enfeebles equally the bodily and the mental pow- 
ers. It saps the foundation of every virtue, and pours 
upon us a deluge of crimes and evils. 

LESSON III. 

An idle, mischievous, and disobedient pupil, disgraces 
himself, dishonours his parents, and displeases his teach- 
er. 

Alas! that such examples are sometimes found! 

O Virtue! how miserable are they who forfeit thy re- 
wards! 

"Oh Happiness! our being's end and aim; 
Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content! whate'er thy name* 
That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh, 
For which we bear to live, or dare to die; 
Which still so near us, yet beyond us lies, 
O'erlook'd, seen double, by the fool, and wise." 

Pope. 

"Be still thyself; that open path of Truth, 
Which led thee here, let manhood firm pursue; 
Retain the sweet simplicity of youth, 
And all thy virtue dictates, dare to do." 

Moore's Fables. 



OF THE ARTICLE. 

An Article is a word placed before nouns, to limit 
their signification* the articles are the, and a or an. 
A and an are one and the same article. A becomes 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

an before a vowel, and before a silent h: as, An acorn, 
an hour. It is also used before words beginning with 
h aspirated, when the accent is on the second syllable: 
as, An heroic action, an historical essay, &x. 

In all other cases, a is used when the following word 
begins with a consoiiant sound: as, A man, a house, a 
wonder, a one, a yew, a use, a ewer, &c. Thus the 
sounds of w and y, even when expressed by other let- 
ters, require a and not an before them. 

The is called the definite article; because it ascer- 
tains what particular thing or things are meant: as, 
"Give me the book;" "Bring me the apples;" meaning 
some book, or apples, referred to. 

A or an is styled the indefinite article-, it is used to 
denote one single thing of a kind, but not any particu- 
lar one-* as, "Give me a book;" ''Bring me an apple." 

Obs. — A noun without an article, or other word, to limit its 
signification, is generally taken in its widest sense: as, Man is 
endowed with reason. 



OF THE NOUN. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing, 
that can be known or mentioned*- as, George, York, man, 
apple , truth. 

Nouns are divided into three general classes; proper, 
common and p atrial or gentile nouns. 

& proper noun is the name of some particular indivi- 
dual: as, George, London, Thames. 

A common noun is the name of a sort, kind, or class, 
of things or animals: as, Man, bird, tree, &c. 

A pat rial or gentile f\s one that is formed from a pro- 
per name: d.s,Benjaminite, Greenlander, Spaniard, Ame- 
rican. 

The particular classes, collective, abstract, and verbal, 
are usually included among common nouns. 

A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the name 
of many individuals together: as, Council, meeting, com* 
mittee, flock, - 



ETYMOLOGY. 19 

An abstract noun is the name of some particular 
quality considered apart from its substance: as, Good- 
ness, knowledge, whiteness, 

A verbal or participial noun is the name of some ac- 
tion or state of being; and is formed from a verb, like a 
participle, but employed as a noun : as, beginning, read- 
ing, writing, &c. 

Obs. I. — When proper names have an article annexed to them, 
they are used as common names: as, l 'He is the Cicero of his 
age;" He is reading the lives of the Twelve Cctsars: except 
when a common noun is understood: ,as, The [river] Hudson— 
the [ship] Amity, &c. 

Obs. 2. — A common name with the definite article prefixed to 
it, sometimes becomes proper: as, The Park — the Strand. 

Obs. 3. — The common name of a thin^ personified, becomes 
proper: as, "My power," said Reason, "is to advise, not to com- 
pel.' ' 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Nouns have modifications of four kinds; namely, Persons, Gen- 
ders, Numbers, and Cases, 

PERSONS. 

Persons, in grammar, are modifications that distin- 
guish the speaker, the hearer, and the person or thing 
merely spoken of. 

Obs.— -The distinction of persons is founded on the different 
relations which the objects mentioned may bear to the discourse 
itself. It belongs to nouns, pronouns, and finite verbs; and to 
these it is always applied, either by peculiarity of form or con- 
struction, or by inference from the principles of concord. Pro- 
nouns are like their antecedents, and verbs are like their subjects, 
in person. 

There are three persons; the first, the second, and the 
third. 

The first person is that which denotes the speaker; as, 
"I Paul have written it : " or, the speaker and some other 
person or persons: as, "James, and Thomas, and /, are 
studying our lessons." "We shall soon be ready to say 
them." 

The second person denotes the hearer, or hearers: as, 
"Robert who did this!" — "Boys prepare your lessons." 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The third person denotes the person or persons, or 
the thing or things, merely spoken of: as, ^ James loves 
his book;" ''The boys are minding their lessons.' 7 

Obs. 1. — In written language, the first person denotes the wri- 
ter or author; and the second, the reader or person addressed; &c* 

Obs. 2, — The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, as 
the speaker; consequently, nouns are rarely used in the first per- 
son; and when they are, a pronoun is usually prefixed to them in 
English. Hence some grammarians deny the first person to 
nouns altogether; others ascribe it; and many are silent on the 
subject. Analogy dearly requires it; as may be seen by the fol- 
lowing examples: "Adsum Troius ./Eneas." — Virg. "Callo- 
pius rccensui." — Ter. Com. apud finem." "Paul, an apostle, &c. 
unto Timothy, mz/ own son in the faith." — L Tim.i, 1. 

Obs. 3.— When a writer does not choose to declare himself in 
the first person, he speaks of himself in the third; thus Moses 
relates what Moses did, and Csesar records the achievements of 
Casau 

Obs. 4. — When inanimate things are spoken to, they are per- 
sonified; and their names are put in the second person, because 
by the figure the objects are supposed to be capable of hearing. 

NUMBERS. 

Numbers are modifications that distinguish unity and 
plurality. 

There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

The singular number expresses but one object: as, a 
chair, a table. 

The plural number signifies more objects than one : as, 
chairs, tables. 

Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they 
express, are used only in the singular form: as, wheat, 
pitch t gold, sloth, pride, fyc ; others only in the plural 
form: as, scissor s, ashes, riches, fyc. 

Some words are the same in both numbers: as, deer, 
sheep, sxvine, <^c. 

The plural number of nouns is generally formed by 
adding s to the singular: as, dove, doves; face, faces; 
tJiought, thoughts. But when the substantive singular 
ends in x, ch, soft, sh t ss, or s, we add es in the plural: 
as, box, boxes; church, churches; lash, lashes; kiss, kisses; 
rtbus, rebuses. If the singular ends in ch hard, the plu- 



ETYMOLOGY. 21 

ral is formed by adding s : as, monarch, monarchs; dis- 
tich, distichs. 

Nouns which end in o have sometimes es added, to form the 
plural: as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, 
wo; and sometimes only s* as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio. 

Common nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change 
y into i and add es, without increase of syllables: as, fly, flies; 
duty, duties. Other nouns in y add s only: as, day, days; valley, 
valleys; so likewise proper names: as, Henry, the Henrys. 

The following nouns in/, change/ into v, and add 'es, for the 
plural; sheaf, leaf, loaf, beef, thief calf, half elf, shelf self, wolf 
wharf: as, sheaves, leaves, fyc. Life, lives; knife, knives; wife, 
wives; are similar. Staff makes staves: though the compounds 
of staff are regular; as, flagstaff, flagstaffs. The greater number 
of nouns mfandfe, are regular; as, fifes, strifes, chiefs, fyc. 

The following are still more irregular: man, men; icoman, wo- 
men; child, children; brother, brethren [or brothers]; foot, j™U 
ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; goose, geese; louse, lice; mouse, mice; die, 
dice; penny, pence. • Dies stamps, and pennies coins, are regular. 

Many foreign nouns retain their original plural: as, arcanum, 
arcana; datum, data; erratum, errata; effluvium, effluvia; medium, 
media [or mediums']; stratum, strata; stamen, stamina; genus, 
genera; genius, genii;* (aerial spirits;) magus, magi; radius, 
radii; appendix, appendices [or appendixes']; calx, calces; index, 
indices;^ (when referring to Algebraic quantities;) vortex, vor- 
tices; axis, axes; basis, bases; crisis, crises; thesis, theses; anti- 
thesis, antitheses; diaresis, dicereses; ellipsis^ ellipses; emphasis, 
emphases; hypothesis, hypotheses; metamorphosis, metamorphoses ; 
automaton, automata; criterion, criteria [or criter ions]; phenome- 
non, phenomena; cherub, cherubim; seraph, seraphim; beau, beaux 
[or beaus]. 

Proper names of individuals, strictly used as such, have no 
plural. 

When a title is prefixed to a proper name so as to form a sort 
of compound, the name, and not the title, is varied to form the 
plural: as, the Miss Howards — the two Mr. Clarks. But a title 
not regarded as a part of one compound name, must be made 
plural, if it refer to more than one: as, Messrs. Lambert and Son — , 
The Lords Calthorpe and Er shine — The Lords Bishops of Durham 
and St. David's — the Lords Commissioners of Justiciary. 

It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the generality 
of correct writers, to construe the following words as plural 
nouns: pains, riches, alms: and also, mathematics, metaphysics, 

* Genius, when it signifies a person of genius, has the regular 
plural. 

t Index, when it signifies a pointer, or a Table of contents, is 
regular. 

3 



S2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

politics, ethics, optics, pneumatics, with other similar names of 
sciences. 

Dr. Johnson says, that the adjective much is sometimes a term 
of number, as well as of quantity. This may account for the 
instances we meet with of its associating with pains as a plural 
noun; as, "much pains." The connexion, however, is not to be 
recommended. 

The nouns means and amends are used both in the singular and 
the plural number. 

Some words derived from the learned languages, are confined 
to the plural number: as, antipodes, credenda, literati, minutia* 

The following nouns being, in Latin, both singular and plural, 
are used in the same manner, when adopted into our tongue: 
hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

Compounds in which the principal word is put first, vary the 
principal word to form the plural, and the adjunct to form the 
possessive case: as, Sing, father-in-law, Plur. fathers-in-law. 
Poss father-in-law's; Singular, court-martial, Plur. courts-mar- 
tial, Poss. court-martial' s. The possessive plural of such nouns, 
is never used. 

Compounds ending ivful, and all those in which the principal 
word is put last, form the plural in the same manner as other 
nouns: as, handfuls, spoonfuls, mouthfuls, fellow*servants, man- 
servants. 

Nouns of multitude, when taken collectively, generally admit 
of the plural form: as, meeting, meetings; but when taken distrr- 
butively, they have a plural signification, without the form: as, 
,c The jury were divided." 

GENDERS. 

Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to 
sex. 

There are three genders; the masculine, the femin- 
ine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes animals of the male 
kind: as, man, boy, king. 

The feminine gender signifies animals of the female 
kind: as, woman, girl, duck, hen. 

The neuter gender denotes objects which are neither 
males nor females: as, field, house, garden. 

Obs. 1. — Some nouns are equally applicable to both sexes; 
as, cousin, friend, neighbour, parent, person, servant. The gen- 
der of these is usually determined by the context. Thus, we 
may say; Parents is a noun of the masculine and feminine gen- 
der; Parent, if doubtful, is ; of the masculine or feminine gender; 
and Parent, if the gender is known by the construction, is of the 
gender so ascertained. 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

Obs. 2. — Generic names even when construed as masculine 
or feminine, often virtually include both sexes: as, " Hast thou 
given the horse strength? hast thou clothed his neck with thun- 
der?'' — "Doth the hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch her 
wings toward the south?" — Job. These are called epiceng 
nouns. 

Obs. 3. — The sexes are distinguished in three ways: 

1st. By the use of different names: as, bachelor, maid; boy, 
girl; brother, sister; earl, countess, fyc. 

2d. By the use of different terminations: as, abbot, abbess; ad- 
ministrator, administratrix. 

3d. By prefixing an attribute of distinction: as, man-servant, 
maid-servant', male relations, female relations. 

Obs. 4. — The names of things without life, used literally, are 
always of the neuter gender. But inanimate objects are often 
represented figuratively, as having Sex. Things remarkable for 
power^ greatness, or sublimity, are spoken of as masculine: as, 
time, death, fyc. Things beautiful, amiable, or prolific, are spo- 
ken of as. feminine: as, larth, nature, fortune, hope, spring, 
peace, 4*c. 

Obs. 5. — Nouns of multitude when they convey the idea of 
unity, are of the neuter gender; but when they convey the idea 
of plurality, they follow the gender of the individuals that com- 
pose the assemblage. ' 

Obs. 6. — .Creatures whose sex is unknown, are generally 
spoken of as neuter: as, "He fired at the deer, and wounded 
it." 

CASES. 

Cases are modifications that distinguish the relations 
of nouns and pronouns to other words. 

In English, nouns have three cases, the nominative^ 
the possessive, and the objective. 

The nominative case simply expresses the name of a 
thing, or the subject of the verb: as, <4 The boy plays;" 
•The girls learn." 

Obs. — The subject of a verb is that which answers to who, or 
what before it; "The boy runs" — who runs'? The boy. 

The possessive case expresses the relation of property 
or possession: as, the boy's hat, my hat. 

Obs. 1. — The possessive case of nouns is generally formed, 
in the singular number, by adding to the nominative, s preceded 
by an apostrophe; and, in the plutal, when the nominative ends 
in s, by adding an apostrophe only: as, sing, boy's, plural, boys\ 

Obs. 2. — Plural nouns that do not end in 5, form the posses- 
sive case in the same manner as the singular: as, man's mens. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 3. — When the singular and the plural are alike in the 
nominative, the apostrophe ought to follow the s in the plural, 
to distinguish it from the singular; sheep's, shceps' . 

Obs. 4.— In the singular number, the apostrophic 5 is omitted, 
when the use of it would give loo much of the hissing sound, or 
increase the difficulty of pronunciation: as, "For righteousness 7 
sake;'' "For conscience* sake.'' 

Obs. 5. — The apostrophe and s are sometimes added to mere 
characters, to denote plurality, and not the possessive case; as, 
two as — three b's — four 9's. 

Obs. 6. — The apostrophe is frequently a sign of abbreviation; 
as; 'tis, for it is; he's, for he is; there's, for there is, &c. 

The objective case is that form or state of a noun or 
pronoun, which denotes the object of a verb, partici- 
ple, or preposition; as, I know the boy; he knows me. 

Obs. 1. — The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is 
that which answers to ichom or what after it: as, "I know the 
boy" — I know whom? The boy. Boy is therefore here in tho 
objective case. 

Obs. 2. — The nominative and the objective of nouns, are al- 
ways alike in form, being distinguishable from each other only 
by their place in a sentence, or their simple dependence accord- 
ing to the sense. 



When the thing to which another is said to belong, is express- 
ed by a circumlocution, or by many terms, the sign of the pos- 
sessive case is commonly added to the last term: as, "The king 
of Great Britain's dominions. " 

Sometimes, though rarely, two nouns in the possessive case, 
immediately succeed each other, in the following form: "My 
friend's wife's sister;" a sense which would be better express- 
ed by saying, "the sister of my friend's wife;" or, "My friend's 
sister-in-law." 

When we say, "A subject of the emperor's;" "A sentiment 
of my brother's;'* more than one subject and one sentiment are 
supposed to belong to the possessor, and the nouns emperor's 
and brother's, are governed by the nouns subjects and senti- 
ments, understood. But when this plurality is neither intimated, 
nor necessarily supposed, this form of expression should not be 
used: as, "This house of the governor is very commodious:" 
"The crown of the king (or the king's crown) was stolen;" 
"That privilege of the scholar was never abused." 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The declension of a noun is a regular arrangement 
of its numbers and cases. Thus; 







ETYMOLOGY. 






Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. 


friend, 


Nom, 


friends, 


Poss. 


friend's 


, Poss. 


friends' 


Obj. 


friend; 


Obj. 


friends. 


Nom. 


man, 


Nom. 


men, 


Poss. 


man's, 


Poss. 


men's, 


Obj. 


man; 


Obj. 


men. 


Nom. 


fox, 


Nom. 


foxes, 


Poss. 


fox's, 


Poss. 


foxes', 


Obj. 


fox; 


Obj. 


foxes. 


Nom. 


fly. 


Nom. 


flies, 


Poss. 


fly's, 


Poss. 


flies', 


Obj. 


fly; 


Obj. 


flies. 



35 



OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

An Adjective is a word added to a noun, and gene- 
rally expresses quality: as, A wise man; a new book. 
You two [persons] are diligent. 

CLASSES. 

Adjectives may be divided into six classes; namely, 
common, proper, numeral, pronominal, participial, and 
compound. 

A common adjective is any ordinary epithet; as, Goody 
bad, peaceful, warlike. 

A proper adjective is one that is formed from a pro- 
per name; as, American, English) Platonic. 

A numeral adjective is one that expresses a definite 
number; as. One, two, three, four, Jive, six, fyc. 

Obs. — Numeral adjectives are of two kinds: namely, 

1. Cardinal; as, One, two, three, four, fyc. 

2. Ordinal; as, First, second, third, fourth, Sfc. 

A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which may 
either accompany its noun, or represent it understood; 
as, "All [men] join to guard what each [man] desires to 
gain." — Pope. 
3» 



S6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

A participial adjective is one that has the form of a 
participle; as, An amusing story. 

A compound adjective is one that consists of two or 
more words, generally joined by a hyphen; as, NuU 
brown, laughter -loving , four-footed; — " A two-foot rule;'* 
(l A wall three feet «8$S6T 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adjectives have, commonly, no modifications but com- 
parison. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express 
quality in different decrees; as, hard) harder, hardest. 

There are commonly reckoned three degrees of com- 
parison, the positive, the comparative, and the superla- 
tive. 

The positive state is that which is expressed by the 
adjective in its simple form; as, hard, soft, good, small. 

Obs. — As the simple form of the adjective does not necessa- 
rily imply comparison, it may be better, in parsing, to call it the 
positive state, than the positive degree. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the sig- 
nification of the positive; as, harder, softer, better, small- 
er. 

The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive to the highest or lowest degree; as, hardest, softest, 
best, smallest. 

REGULAR COMPARISON. 

Adjectives are regularly compared, when the com- 
parative degree is expressed by adding er, and the su- 
perlative, by adding est to them; as, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

great, greater, greatest 

wide, wider, widest, 

hot, hotter, hottest. 

The regular method of comparison is chiefly applicable -to- 
monosyllables, and to dissyllables ending in y or mute «. 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

COMPARISON BY ADVERBS. 

The different degrees of a quality may also be expressed, with 
precisely the same import, by prefixing to the adjective the ad- 
Terbs more and most: as, wise, more wise, most wise; famous, 
more famous, most famous; amiable, more amiable, most amiable. 

The degrees of diminution are generally expressed, in like 
manner, by the adverbs less and least: as, wise, less wise, least 
wise; famous, less famous, least famous, fyc. 

Most adjectives of more than one syllable, must be compared 
by means of the adverbs; because they do not admit of a change 
of termination: thus, we may say, virtuous, more virtuous, most 
virtuous; but not virtuous, virtuouser, virtuousest. 

Obs. — The prefixing of an adverb can hardly be called a va- 
riation of the adjective: the words may, with more propriety, be 
parsed separately, the degree being ascribed to the adverb. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly; 
good, better, best; bad or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; 
much, more, most; many, more, most; far , farther , far ih~ 
est; forth, further, furthest; late , later or latter, latest or 
last. 

Obs. 1. — All these irregular words, except late and the posi- 
tives good, bad, and many, are adverbs as well as adjectives. 
Far is now seldom used as an adjective in the positive; and/ortft, 
never. 

Obs. 2. — The words hind, fore, in, out, up, under, mid, head, and 
top, which in composition with nouns, are often used as adjectives, 
have a form of comparison that is both irregular and redundant: 
as, hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost; fore, former, foremost or 
first; in, inner, inmost or innermost; out, outer or utter, outmost, 
or utmost, outermost or uttermost; up, upper, upmost or upper' 

most; under, undermost; mid or middle, , midmost or 

middlemost; head, ■, headmost; top, -, topmost. But it 

m*y be remarked of the comparatives here given, as well as of 
the Latin superior and inferior, anterior and posterior, interior 
and exterior, prior and ulterior, senior and junior, major and mi' 
nor, that they cannot, like other comparatives, be construed with 
the conjunction than. 

Obs. 3. — Adjectives whose signification does not admit of 
different degrees, cannot be compared; as, Two, second, all, rights 
immortal, infinite. 

Obs. 4. — Many words in English are sometimes nouns, some- 
times adjectives: thus, in the phrases, "the chief good, " the vast 
immense of space," oood and immense are nouns: and in tho 
phrases, "an iron bar," "an evening school,' ' the words iron and 
evening are adjectives. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 5. — Though the adjective always relates to a substantive, 
(says Mr. Murray,) it is, in many instances, put as if it were ab- 
solute; especially where the noun has been mentioned before, or 
is easily understood, though not expressed: as, "I often survey 
the green fields, as I am very fond of green;" [colour;] "The 
wise, the virtuous, the honoured, famed and great," that is, "per- 
sons;" "The twelve,'' that is, "apostles;' 1 "Have compassion 
on the poor; be feet to the lame, and eyes to the blind," 

N. B. — Words of the description pointed out in the last ex- 
amples, are pure adjectives, and ought to be parsed as such; the 
learner always taking care to mention the nouns to which they 
relate: e. g. in the sentence, "Have compassion on the poor," 
poor is an adjective, and relates to the noun persons, understood. 

In poetry, the sign of the possessive case is sometimes, though 
rarely, applied to adjectives that have not their nouns expressed. 
But this liberty is scarcely allowable in prose. 

Obs. 6. — The numerals are often used as nouns; and, as such, 
are regularly declined; as, By tens — For twenty's sake. 

Obs. 7. — The words one, other, and none, when they stand for 
nouns, are indefinite pronouns; as, "The great ones (i. e. persons) 
of the world;" "Such a one;" '-Another's* wo;" "Let others 
do as they will;" "None escape." — As pronouns, one and other 
are regularly declined like nouns: other and others, when used in 
this manner, are compound words, including the adjective other 
and some particular noun; as, "When you have perused these 
papers, I will send you the others;" i.e. the other papers, "He 
pleases some, but he disgusts others; 1 ' i. e. other persons. — Non* 
is used in both numbers; but it is not varied in its form. — See 
Kirkhairi's grammar, p. 107. 

Obs. 8. — Compriratives are sometimes employed as nouns, and 
have the regular declension; as, "Our superiors — His letters — The 
elder's advice." 

Obs. 9. — The following are the principal pronominal adjec- 
tives: All, any, both, each, either, every, few, former, first, latter, 
last, many, neither, none, other, same, several, some, such t this, 
tliat, which, what. 

Obs. 10, — None is used in both numbers: as, "None is so deaf 
as he that will not hear:" "None of those are equal to these.'* 

Remarks on the subject of Comparison. 

"If we consider the subject of comparison attentively, we shall 
perceive that the degrees of it are infinite in number, or at least 
indefinite. The following instances will illustrate this position. 

* Custom authorizes the union of the article an and the word 
other. Their union, however, sometimes leads to an improper 
repetition of the article; as, 'Another such a man/—- for, 'Another 
such man/ — or, 'Such another man.' 



ETYMOLOGY. SO 

A mountain is larger than a mite; — by how many degrees? How 
much bigger is the earth than a grain of sand? By how many 
degrees was Socrates wiser than Alcibiades? or by how many 
degrees is snow whiter than this paper? It is plain, that to these, 
and many other questions of a similar nature, no definite answers 
can be returned/' 

"In quantities, however, that may be exactly measured, the 
degress of excess may be exactly ascertained. A foot is just 
twelve times as long as an inch; and an hour is sixty times the 
length of a minute. But in regard to qualities which cannot be 
measured exactly, it is impossible to say how many degrees may 
be comprehended in the comparative excess. ,, 

"But though these degrees are infinite or indefinite iu fact, 
they cannot be so in language: it is not possible to accommodate 
our speech to such numberless gradations; nor would it be con- 
venient, if language were to express many of them. In regard 
to unmeasured quantities and qualities, the degrees of more and 
less, (besides those marked above,) may be expressed intelligibly, 
at least, if not accurately, by certain adverbs, or words of like 
import: as, 'Virtue is greatly preferable to riches;' 'Socrates was 
much wiser than Alcibiades;' 'Snow is a great deal whiter than 
this paper;' 'The tide is considerably higher to-day than it was 
yesterday,' 'Epaminondas was by far the most accomplished of 
the Thebans;' 'The evening star is a very splendid object, but 
the sun is incomparably more splendid;' 'The Deity is infinitely 
greater than the greatest of his creatures.' The inaccuracy of 
these, and the like expressions, is not a material inconvenience; 
and, if it were, it is unavoidable: for human speech can only ex- 
press human thought; and where thought is necessarily inaccu- 
rate, language must be so too." 

"The comparative may be so employed, as to express the 
same pre-eminence or inferiority as the superlative. Thus, 
the sentence, ; Of all acquirements, virtue is the most valuable? 
eonveys the same sentiment as the following: 'Virtue is mort 
valuable than every other acquirement.' " 

"When we properly use the comparative degree, the objects 
compared are set in direct opposition, and the one is not con- 
sidered as a part of the other, or as comprehended under it. If 
I say, 'Cicero was more eloquent than the Romans,' I speak ab- 
surdly; because it is well known, that of the class of men ex- 
pressed by the word Romans, Cicero was one. But when I 
assert that 'Cicero was more eloquent than all the other Romans, 
or than any other Roman? I do not speak absurdly: for though the 
persons spoken of were all of the same class or city, yet Cicero 
is here set in contradistinction to the rest of his countrymen, and 
is not considered as one of the persons with whom he is com- 
pared. Moreover, if the Psalmist had said, 'I am the wisest of 
my teachers,' the phrase would have been improper, because it 
would imply that he was one of his teachers. But when he says* 
( I am wiser than my teachers,' he does not Gensider himself a* 



&) ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

one of them, but places himself in contradistinction to them. 
So also, in the expression, 'Eve was the fairest of her daugh- 
ters, 7 the same species of impropriety is manifest; since the 
phrase supposes, that Eve was one of her own daughters. 
Again, in the sentence, 'Solomon was the wisest of men,' Solo- 
mon is compared with a kind of beings, of whom he himself is 
one, and therefore the superlative is used. But the expression, 
''Solomon was of all men the wiser,' is not sense : because the 
use of the comparative would imply, that Solomon was set ia 
opposition to mankind; which is so far from being the case, that 
he is expressly considered as one of the species." 

"As there are some qualities which admit of comparison, so 
there are others which admit of none. Such, for example, are 
those vvhich denote that quality of bodies arising from their 
figure, as when we say, "A circular table; a quadrangular court; 
a conical piece of metal," &c. The reason is, that a million of 
things participating the same figure, participate it equally, if they 
do it at all. To say, therefore, that, while A and B are both 
quadrangular, A is more or less quadrangular than B is absurd. 
The same holds true in all attributives denoting definite quanti- 
ties, of whatever nature. Thus the two-foot rule C. cannot be 
more a two foot rule than any other of the same length. For as 
there can be no comparison without intension or remission, and 
as there can be no intension or remission in things always defi- 
nite, these attributives can admit of no comparison. By the 
same method of reasoning, we discover the cause why no sub- 
stantive is susceptible of these degrees of comparison. A moun- 
tain cannot be said more to be, or to exist, than a molehill; but 
the more or less must be sought for in their qualities. 

EXERCISES FOR PARSING. 

(CHAPTER II.) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish and define 
the different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of 
tlie articles arid nouns. Thus: 

James is a lad of uncommon talents. 

James is a proper noun of the masculine gender, third person, 
singular number, and nominative case. 

1. A noun is the name of any person, place, &c. as in the be- 

ginning of Etymology. 

2. A proper name, or noun, is the name of some particular in>- 

dividual, &c. 

3. The third person is that which denotes the person, &c. 

merely spoken of. 

4. The singular number expresses but one object. 

5. Th«e masculine gender denotes, &c. as in the definition. 

€L The nominative case is that form or state, fyc, 4»c. to tbs 

% 



ETYMOLOGY. 31 

end of the sentence, distinguishing each part of speech, and re- 
peating the definitions. 

LESSON I. 

Science strengthens and enlarges the mind. 

A large ship, traversing the ocean by force 'of the wind, is a 
noble proof of the power and ingenuity of man. 

When spring returns, the trees resume their verdure, and the 
plants and flowers display their beauty. 

I John saw these things and heard them. 

LESSON II. 

And all the king's servants, that were in the king's gate, bow- 
ed, and reverenced Haman: but Mordecai bowed not, nor did 
him reverence. 

Esther put on her royal apparel, and stood in the inner court 
of the king's house. 

A mother's tenderness and a father's care are nature's gifts 
for man's advantage. 

Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend 

His actions', passions', being's use and end. — Pope, 

(CHAPTER III.) 

In lohich it is required of the pupil — to distinguish and define ths 
different parts of speech, and the classes and modifications of 
the articles, nouns, and adjectives. 

LESSON I. 

I prefer the honest course. 

There is an easier and better way. 

Earthly joys are few and transitory. 

Heavenly rewards are complete and eternal. 

The best and wisest men are sometimes in fault. 

Demosthenes was a famous Grecian orator. 

This plain old man has more wit than all his opponents. 

The three rooms on the second floor, are smaller and less con- 
venient than the others. 

The largest and most glorious machines contrived and erected 
by human skill, are not worthy of a comparison with the mag- 
nificent productions of nature. 

LESSON II. 

The first years of man must make provision for the last. 

External things are naturally variable, but truth and reason are 
always the same. — Johnson. 

'To him that lives well,' answered the hermit, 'every form of 
life is good; nor can I give any other rule for choice, than to re- 
move from all apparent evil.'— Id. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Come, Calm Content, serene and sweet! 
O gently guide my pilgrim feet 

To find thy hermit cell; 
Where, in some pure and equal sky, 
Beneath thy soft indulgent eye, 

The modest virtues dwell. — Barbauld. 

OF THE PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead *of a noun: as? 
The boy loves his book; he has long lessons; and h* 
learns them well. 

Obs. 1. — The word for which a pronoun stands, is called its 
antecedent. Some grammarians, however, have limited the term 
antecedent, to the word represented by a relative. 

Obs. 2. — Sometimes, the pronoun is used to represent an ad- 
jective, a sentence, a part of a sentence, and sometimes even a 
series of propositions: as, "They supposed him to be innocent, 
which he certainly was not." c< His friend bore the abuse very 
patiently; which served to increase his rudeness: it produced, 
at length, contempt and insolence. " 

Obs. 3. — The pronouns / and thou, in their different modifica- 
tions, stand immediately for persons that are, in general, suffi- 
ciently known without being named; and the relatives that 
come after them, may be referred to these pronouns, as their 
antecedents. 

Obs. 4. — The other personal pronouns are sometimes taken 
in a general or absolute sense, to denote persons or things not 
previously mentioned; and pronouns of this description may be 
considered as the antecedents to the relatives that come after 
them: as, "He that hath knowledge, spareth his words." 

Obs. 5. — The interrogative wlw, often stands in construc- 
tion as the antecedent to the relative that: as, "Who that has 
any sense of religion, would have argued thus?" 

CLASSES. 

Pronouns are divided into two classes; personal and 
relative. 

A personal pronoun, is a pronoun that shows, by its 
form, of what person it is. The simple personal pro- 
nouns are five: namely, J, of the first person; thou, of 
the second person: Tie, she, and it, of the third person. 

A relative pronoun, is a pronoun thai represents an 
antecedent word or phrase, and connects different claus- 
es of a sentence. The relative pronouns are, who, 
which, what, and that. 



ETYiMOLOGY. 33 

Obs. 1. — Who, is applied to persons only; which, (as a rela- 
tive,) to animal* and inanimate things; what, (as a mere relative 
pronoun,) is applied to things only: that, is applied to persons, 
animals, or things, 

Obs. 2. — The relative what is a kind of compound word, in- 
cluding both the antecedent and the relative; and is generally 
equivalent to that ichich or the thing which. In this double rela- 
tion, ichat represents two cases at the same time; as, "He is 
ashamed of what he has done; 1 ' that is, of that [thini;] which 
he has done. It is sometimes equivalent to the things ichich. 

Obs. 3. — What has sometimes, though rarely, the signification 
of both an adjective and a relative at the same time, and is piaced, 
as an adjective, before the noun to which it relates; as, 'What 
money we had, was taken away;" that is, All the money that 

we had, fyc. The compound whatever or whatsoever has the 

same peculiarities of construction; as, "We wili certainly do 
w/iatsoever thing goeth forth out of our own mouth. 5 ' — Jer. 

Obs. 4. — Who, ichich, and ichat, when the affix ever or soever 
is added, have an unlimited signification, and frequently perform 
the office of two cases at the same time: as, "Whoever attends 
will improve;" that is, "Any person icho attends, will improve. — 
"Whatever is worth doing at all, is worth doing well." i. e. 
Any thing that is worth doing, &c. 

Oas. 5. — Which and xchat are often prefixed to nouns (ex- 
pressed or understood) as definitive or interrogative adjectives; 
and, as such, may be applied to persons, or animais, as well as 
to things: as, u What [work or business] are you doing?" u Whai 
man?'' "Which boy?" &c. 

Obs. 6. — That is a relative pronoun, when it is equivalent to 
who or lohich; as, "The days that [which] are past, are gone 
forever." It is a definitive or pronominal adjective, when it re- 
lates, as an adjective, to a noun expressed or understood: as, 
<£ That book is new." In other cases, it is a conjunction; as, 
''Live well, that you may die well.'' 

Obs. 7. — The word as, though usually a conjunction, has 
sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun; as, "The 
Lord added to the church daily such [persons] as should be 
saved." — Acts, ii. 47. 

"Some writers" (says Mr. Murray) have classed the inter- 
rogative? as a separate kind of pronouns; but they are too nearly 
related to the relative pronouns, both in nature and form, to 
render such a division proper. They do not, in fact, lose the 
character of relatives, when they become interrogatives. The 
only difference is, that without an interrogation, the relatives 
have reference to a subject which is antecedent, definite, and 
known; with an interrogation, to a subject which is subsequent, 
indefinite, and unknown, and which it is expected that the an* 
swer should express and ascertain." 

These remarks appear to be judicious, so far as the relative 
4 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

who is concerned. But surely the writer of them, though verv 
sagacious in commenting on the "form" of the nterrogatives! 
must have paid but very little attention to the "nature" of 3 
wiliri' -"T he . ass f,' ted that "the only difference is, tot 
withou an ^interrogation," & c . &c. as above.— There is a verv 

Sfed 6 onh , ffer a en ° e I" 0t !, ler reS P 6CtS - Which - as a "K '■ ^ 
Ft 1? Tnn: / i' malS 8nd ,nammat e objects,— as an in^ro^, 

eouival^ B , , t0 PerS ° nS - What > as a ™ ta ^' is a 'ways 
equivalent to two or more words, and applied to things only;l 

as an interrogative, it has the signification of but a single word- 

or un7istoor° n S * a n °™ ™ diatel y after it, either expressed 
D °' U " ,S i°° d; and f a PP''ed as has been already shown) to 
persons, or to animals, as well as to things. When this inter- 
rogauve has no noun expressed to it, the word thing 7r wolk, 
or business, is always understood. S ' ' 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns- 
namely, Persons, Numbers, Genders, and Cases. 

Obs. 1.— In the personal pronouns, most of these properties 
are distinguished by the words themselves; in the relatwe p o! 
nouns,they are ascertained chiefly by the antecedent and P ,he 

Obs. 2.— The pronoun /, is of the first person, singular: thou 

n K ula, eC °l P fT' fiT 1 ^ he ' ,* V lt < is lhe *W person; 
smgulai. We, is the first person, plural; yt or vou is the <= P cond 
person plural; they is the third person plural. * 
SO n?»V P 3 ;7 T n e P^P^'pronouns of the first and second per- 
ITt'Z e 1. ual| y ^PP'tp^le to both sexes; and should be consid- 
oftLm Th 6 orfemln 'n«. ^cording ,o the known application 
ofh« ' n e , % t nd the ' learer ' bein S Present to each 

loi- \nH lb"' 56 1 S6X t0 Which the y respectively be- 
theyare" y apP6ar narra tive, we are told who 

DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS. 

The declension of a pronoun is a regular arrange- 
ment of its numbers and cases. 

The personal pronouns are thus declined: 
I, of the first person. 
Sing. Nom. I, Plur. Norn, we, 

Poss. my; or mine, Poss. oui' 

0b j- me, Obj. us. 



ETYMOLOGY. 35 

Thou, of the second person. 

Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Norn, ye,* or you, 

Poss. thy, or thine* Poss. you, or yours, 

Obj. thee; Obj, you. 

He, she, and it of the third person. 
He, of the masculine gender. 

Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. him; Obj. them. 

She, of the feminine gender. 

Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. her; Obj. them. 

It, of the neuter gender. 

Sing. Nom. it, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. its, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. it; Obj. them. 

Obs. 1. — You was formerly restricted to the plural number; but 
now it is employed to represent either a singular or a plural noun 
of the second person. It ought to be recollected, however, that 
when used as the representative of a singular noun, the verb con- 
riecied with this pronoun should always he plural. Thus, instead 
of saying, "When was you there, Thomas?" we should say, 
"When were you there?" Thou is confined to poetry and to the 
solemn style. 

Obs. 2. — Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, theirs, invariably stand 
for, not only the person possessing, but, also, the thing possess- 
ed, which gives them a compound character. They may, there- 
fore, be properly denominated Compound Personal Pronouns; 
and as they always perform a double office in a sentence, by re- 
presenting two other words, and, consequently, including two 
cases, they should, like the compound relative what, be parsed 
as two words. Thus, in the example, "You may imagine what 
kind of faith theirs was," theirs is a compound personal pro- 
noun, equivalent to their faith. Their is a personal pronoun, of 
the third person, plural number, and in the possessive case, and 

# The use of the pronoun ye is confined to the solemn style, 
and to the burlesque. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

governed by faith. Faith is a noun, of the neuter gender, &c. 
&c— and in the nominative case to the verb "was." 

Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will 
doubtless be preferred by persons who assert that a noun is un- 
derstood after these words, and not represented by them. But 
this is assertion without proof; for if a noun were understood, it 
might be supplied. If the question be put, Whose book 1 ? and 
the answer be, mine, ours, hers, or theirs, the word book is in- 
cluded in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply 
it, thus, mine book, ours book, &c. This, however, we cannot do, 
for it would be giving a double answer: but when the question is 
answered by a noun in the possessive case, the word book is not 
included, but implied; as, YVhose book?— John's, Richard's; that 
is, John's book; Richard's book. — If what, when compound, 
should be parsed as two words, why not mine, thine, his, hers, 
ours, yours, and theirs! — Kirkhanfs gram. pp. 100, 101. 

Obs. 2.— Mine and thine were formerly used before all words 
beginning with a vowel sound. But this construction is now 
obsolete, or peculiar to the poets. 

The word self added to the personal pronouns, forms a class 
of compound personal -pronouns; which are used when an action 
reverts upon the agent, and also when some persons are to be 
distinguished from others: as, sing, myself, plur. ourselves; sing. 
thyself, plur. yourselves; sing, himself, herself, itself, plur. them," 
selves. They all want the possessive case, and are alike in the 
nominative and objective. {Sometimes, for the sake of emphasis, 
they are expressed in the same construction with the noun for 
which they stand; sometimes, with a simple pronoun: as, "David 
himself was of that opinion;" "I myself was present when it 
happened." 

The word own is added to the possessive cases my, thy, his, 
her, our, your, their. It is emphatical, and implies a silent con- 
trariety or opposition: as, "I live in my own house," that is, "not 
in a hired house." 

Hlsself theirselves, itsself, are obsolete. When an adjective 
or the word own is prefixed to self, the pronouns are written se- 
parately in the possessive case: as, My single self — My own self— 
Their own selves. 

The relative pronouns are thus declined: 

Who, applied to persons. 

Sing. Norn, who, Plur. Nom. who, 

Poss. whose, Poss. whose 2 

Obj. whom; Obj. whom. 



ETYMOLOGY. 37 

Which, applied to animals and things. 

Singf. Norn, which, Plur. Nom. which, 

Poss.* , Poss. , 

Ohj, which, Obj. which. 

What, applied to things. 

Sing. Nom. What, Plur. Nom. what, 

Poss. , Poss. — — 

Obj. what, Obj. what. 

That, applied to persons, animals, and things. 

Sing, Nom. that, Plur Nom. that, 

Poss. , Poss. , 

Obj. that, Obj. that. 

The compound relative pronoun, whoever or ivhosoever, is de- 
clined like who. 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING 
(CHAPTER IV;) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish and 
define the different parts of speech, and the classes and 
modifications of the articles, nouns, adjectives, and pro- 
nouns. 

LESSON I. 

I who was present, know the particular?. 

He who has not virtue, is not truly wise. 

She met him; and we met them. 

An enemy that disguises 'himself under the veil of friendship, 
is worse than one that declares open hostility. 

He that improperly reveals a secret, injures both himself and 
them to whom he tells it. 

LESSON II. 

All men have their frailties. Whoever looks for a friend with- 
out imperfections, will never find what he seeks. We love our- 



* Whose is sometimes used as the possessive case of which. 
4* 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

selves with all our faults; and we ought to love our friends in like 
manner. 

Selina's benevolence and piety engaged the esteem of all who 
knew her. 

When the Saxons subdued the Britons, they introduced into 
England their own language; which was a dialect of the Teu- 
tonic, or Gothic. 



OF THE VERB. 

A Verb is a word that signifies to be, to act, or to be 
acted upon: as, I am, I rule, 1 am ruled. 

CLASSES. 

Verbs are divided, with respect to their form, into 
two classes; regular and irregular. To these, perhaps, 
may be added a third class; namely, of defective verbs. 

A regular verb is a verb that forms the preterit and 
the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; as, love, 
Ioved, Ioveb — command^ commandEv, corawianc?ED. 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the 
preterit and the perfect participle by assuming d or ed; 
as, see, saw, seen, 

Obs.— Regular verbs form their preterit and perfect participle, 
by adding d to final e, and ed to all other terminations. The verb 
hear, heard, heard, adds d to r, and is therefore irregular. 

A defective verb is a verb which wants some of the 
principal parts. 

Verbs are divided, with respect to their signification, 
into four classes; active -transitive, active -intransitive, 
passive, and neuter. 

An active-transitive verb is a verb that expresses an 
action which has some person or thing for its object; as, 
"Cain slew Abel," 1 

An active-ijitransitive verb is a verb that expresses an 
action which has no person or thing for its object; as, 
"John walks'' 

A passive verb is a verb that represents its subject, or 
nominative, as being acted upon, as, "I am compelled." 

A neuter verb is a verb that expresses neither action 



ETYMOLOGY. 39 

nor passion, but simply being, or a state of being; as, 
"Thou art—- He sleeps." 

O bs . l. — Active-transitive verbs generally take the agent be- 
fore them and the object after them; as, "Caesar conquered Pom- 
pey." Passive verbs (which are derived from active-transitive 
verbs) reverse this order, and denote that the subject, or nomi- 
native, is affected by the action; and the agent follows, being in- 
troduced by the preposition by: as, "Pompey was conquered by 
Caesar." 

Obs. 2. — Most active verbs may be used either transitively or in- 
transitively. Active verbs are transitive when there is any person 
or thing expressed or clearly implied, upon which the action termi- 
nates; when they do not govern such an object, they are intran- 
sitive. 

Obs. 3. —Some verbs way be used either in an actiaa or a neu- 
ter sense. In the sentence, "Here I rest," rest is a neuter verb; 
but in the sentence, "Here I rest my hopes," rest is an active- 
transitive verb, and governs hopes. So also, in the sentence, 
"She made him laugh," laugh is a verb neuter; but in the sen- 
tence, "She laughs him to scorn," the word laughs is an active 
verb. 

OF COMPOUND VERBS. 

Obs. 1. — Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a prepo- 
sition, or of a verb and an abverb; as, to uphold, to invest, to 
overlook: and this composition sometimes, indeed generally, 
gives a new sense to the verb; as, to understand, to withdraw, 
to forgive. 

But iu English, the particle taken into composition is more 
frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it; in which 
situation it is not less apt to affect the sense of it; and must be 
considered as belonging to the verb, and as a part oj it. As, 
to cast, is to throw; but to cast up (that is, to compute) an ac- 
count, is quite a different thing; thus, to fall on, to bear out, to 
give over, &c. So that the meaning of the verb, and the pro- 
priety of the phrase, depend on the particle subjoined. As the 
distinct component parts of these words are, however, no guide 
to the sense of the whole, this circumstance contributes greatly 
towards making our language peculiarly difficult to foreigners. 
It may not be useless to observe, that when expressions of this 
form can be converted into the passive voice, without deviating 
from the practice of correct speakers and writers, they are com- 
pound active verbs; otherwise, they are not. Sometimes there 
may be an ambiguity in expressions of this description. For 
example, if I say, "They laughed at my house,' ' the meaning 
may be, either that my house was laughed at by them, or that 
they were at my house, and laughed when they were there. In 
the former case, laughed at should be considered as a compound 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

active verb; in the latter, the word laughed is a neuter verb, and 
at a preposition. 

Obs. 2. — Sometimes, a substantive and the preposition o/are 
compounded with the verb; and must be considered as parts of 
the verb: a?, "I make use of it;" "He took notice of it;" "He 
takes care of it;"* &c. — This will appear evident to the learner, 
if we express the same sentiments in the passive voice: thus, 
"It was taken notice of by him;" "It is madeuse of by me;" "It 
is taken care of by him." &c. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Verbs have modifications of four kinds ; namely, 
Moods, Tenses, Persons, and Numbers. 

Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which 
expresses the being, action, or passion, in some particu- 
lar manner. 

There are four moods, the Indicative , the Imperative, 
the Subjunctive, and the Infinitive. 

The Indicative mood simply indicates or declares a 
thing; as, "He loves, he U loved:" or it asks a question; 
as, "Does he love?" "Is he loved? 

The Imperative mood is used for commanding, exhort- 
ing, entreating, or permitting* as, 'Depart thou," — 
"Be comforted." — ''Forgive me." — "Go in peace." 

The Subjunctive mood represents a thing under a 
condition, wish, supposition, &c. and is preceded by a 
conjunction, expressed or understood, and attended by 
another verb: as, "I might write if I chose."-— "If he 
wrote a good hand, I would employ him.' 5 — "If he had 
been in town yesterday, I should have seen him."— "I 
wish [that] he had a proper sense of his duty." — "When 
he comes we shall be better informed." — "As soon as 
he has dined, he will attend to your affairs." 

The Infinitive mood expresses a thing in a general 
and unlimited manner, without any distinction of num- 
ber or person: as, "to act, — to speak, — to be feared" 

Remarks on the Moods. 

1. — Bishop Lowth, in his Introduction to English Grammar, 
p. 50, says, — "In English, the several expressions of conditional 
will, possibility, liberty, obligation, fyc. come all under the sub- 
junctive mode. The mere expressions of will, possibility, liber- 



ETYMOLOGY. 41 

ty, obligation, &c. belong to the Indicative mode: it is their con- 
ditionally, their being subsequent, and depending upon some- 
thing preceding, that determines them to the Subjunctive mode. 1 ' 

2. — Doctor Priestly makes no distinction at all, as to moods. 
And in speaking of the verbs shall, will, can, and may, he says 
they "express no certain distinction of time; and, therefore, have 
no proper tenses: but they have two forms, one of which express- 
es absolute certainty, and may, therefore, be called the absolute 
form; and the other implies a condition, and may, therefore, be 
called the conditional form." 

3. The Rev. T. £. Higginson, a highly respectable gramma- 
rian, has the following questions and answers: — "Which are the 
Auxiliaries added to the Verb, to express the Time?'' "The 
Auxiliaries do, be, have, shall, and will" — "Are there no other 
Verbs generally called Auxiliaries?* 7 "Yes, there are several; 
as, let, may, can, might, could, would, should, must: but as these 
verbs do not of themselves express the Time, that, being deter- 
mined by the drift of the sentence, they are improperly termed 
Auxiliaries. They are rather defective verbs, having in them- 
selves a determinate signification, and requiring the verb that 
follows thern to be in the infinitive mode without the sign to 
prefixed.' ' 

In a note on this answer, he observes: — "This will answer all 
the purposes of English Grammar, with which alone we are 
now concerned, and will much simplify our language, which has 
been rendered more complex and unintelligible, by endeavouring 
to accommodate its construction to the Latin tongue, and there- 
by heaping an unnecessary burthen upon the mere English scho- 
lar.' ' 

His next question and answer run thus: — "You say that these 
verbs do not mark the Time, which you seem to make the pro- 
per characteristic of an Auxiliary, and that of consequence they 
are improperly Auxiliaries: but I thought \hax might, could, would, 
and should, were generally esteemed the past times of the verbs 
may, can, icill, and shall?*' — "They are generally esteemed so; 
but, I think, improperly. (CT See note 6." 

" 6 Certainly improperly: for if they be the past times of these 
verbs, they should in themselves exhibit a past signification, as 
the past times of other verbs do; as for instance, if I say "I loved 
Nancy, I bore arms," it evidently appears that those actions are 
past; but 1 may use any of the above verbs, miohi, could, would, 
should, either in the present, the past, or the future time. It is 
the verb to which they are joined, or some oilier particle annex- 
ed to it, which determines of what time they are: as for exam- 
ple, "I might, could, would, or should do it now. I might, &C; 
have done it yesterday. I could, would, or should do it to-mor- 
row." " They seem therefore to hold the rank of primitive verbs, 
as well as the others, and not to be their past times any more 
than they are ihe'iv future; besides, to speak of the past times of 
future verbs, as will, and shall, sounds somewhat odd." 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"My position will appear still more evident, if to the examples 
of the Past Imperfect given us by the Grammarians, as formed 
by these verbs; as, "I might love, I should write," a particle ex- 
pressive of Time Past be added: as, "I might love yesterday, I 
should write yesterday," it would make a senseless jargon, and 
confound the present and past times. For to make it sense, we 
must take the assistance of another auxiliary, and the past par- 
ticiple, which being expressive of past time, gives a clear idea; 
as, "I might, could, would, or should have written yesterday." 

"The exclusion of these verbs from the rank of auxiliaries, ne- 
cessarily requires that we exclude the potential mode, which is 
formed by them, from being a proper mode of the English 
Tongue; and indeed, if our definition of the modes be just, it is 
evident that the several signs by which that mode is marked be- 
long to the Indicative, they being simply declarative, or interro- 
gative, as in the following examples: 

"Here we may reign secure. 

Firm they might have stood, yet fell," 

Milton. 

"What could I do? 
With pious sacrilege a grave I stole, 
Nor writ her name whose tomb should pierce the skies. n 

Young." 

"The potential mode in Latin is rendered into English by the 
help of those verbs, and therefore the English Grammarians have 
formed a potential mode to accommodate it to theLatin Tongue, 
how improperly, will, I hope, appear by comparing the several 
passages that refer to it in this Grammar, as well as injudiciously 
burthening the mere English scholar with unnecessary distinc- 
tions. — Yet supposing us to allow a potential mode in English,, 
we could not, even so, make the two languages perfectly agree, 
as there are modes of expression in the Latin, perfectly similar 
to our English construction in the indicative, and these interspers- 
ed through all the Latin books to which the young Tyro is first 
introduced. 

"Q,ui possum, quoeso, facere quod quereris, 

Lupe?" 
"Nee quern petebat, adeo potuit attingere." 

"Servitus obnoxia 
Quid quce volebat non audebat dicere." — Phadrus." 

Mr. James Brown (American Grammar, pp. 113, 114,) makes 
the following observations, respecting the verbs may, can, must, 
might, could, would, should: — "It is said by all who have gone 
before us upon this science, that may, can, must, are of the pre- 
sent tense. And that may have, can have, must have, are of the 
perfect tense; or that the auxiliaries, may and have, joined to the 
principal verb, constitute the perfect tense. But in the ex* 



ETYMOLOGY. 43 

pression: God must have known the fate of man before he created 
them, this verb, or combination of verbs, is, in truth, of the plu- 
perfect TENSE." 

"Again. In the expression: 

James may have learned his lesson last evening the verb is of 

the IMPERFECT Or PAST TENSE." 

"2. It is laid down as a sound principle in our language, that 
might, could, would, and should, are verbs of the impWect 
or past tense. But we cannot properly say, he should write 
to his friend last week. Might and should have no allusion to 
past time. They belong to the class of auxiliary verbs which 
denote the present time. Would and could relate to past time; 
as I could write last year, a better hand than I can this. They 
would return last week. JThat is, they were determined." 

"3. It is said that the pluperfect tense signifies a thing that 
past prior to some point of time specified in the same sentence. 
If this be a correct definition of the tense, the verb might have 
loved, may, or it may not be pluperfect in its tense. FSr exam- 
ple: I might have loved her after she returned to the city. Here 
the act of loving is represented as having been possible after (not 
before) the other point of time. Again: The lad should have 
gone immediately after his father bade him!!! "Finally, we may 
see from examples which occur every hour, that these very verbs 
which are confined by our English Grammars, to the pluperfect 
tense, are in the past or imperfect, as often as they are in the plu- 
perfect:" &c— And, he might have added,— in the perfect tense 
also. 

The same author, in speaking of these verbs, (pp. 153 154 ) 
says, "The auxiliaries of which we are now treating have noth- 
ing but the capacity of becoming almost any thing which the 
preceding, or the succeeding circumstances, may dictate. These 
verbs have a species of floating tense, which may be brought to, 
or fixed, by the cable found in expressed or implied incidents! 
But, as we have expressed under page 113, the fallacy of the 
tense distinctions which have been forced upon these auxiliaries, 
as well as may, can, must, together with may-have, must-have, 
can-have, we have now only to ask, where is the use of present- 
ing a conjugation of them? We conceive that there is none, and, 
therefore, shall dismiss them?" 

In page 153, he also say?: "Finally, the tenses produced by 
these auxiliaries, are variable, so much so, that nothing can fix 
them but adjuncts, or the context" 

Mr. Noah Webster, in his "Rudiments of English Grammar," 
(Syntax, Rule xxxi.) says: "The verbs bid,make, see, hear, feel, 
Ut, and the auxiliaries may, can, must, shall, will, dare, and need, 
are followed by the infinitive mode without the sisn to." 

The Academician, an excellent work on Education, by Messrs. 
A. & J. W. Picket, of New-York, contains the following pas- 
sages: a r 

"I may go," and "I might go," are radically future in their 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

application, "I should go," is equally future with "I shall go," 
though not otherwise synonymous. "I can go/' and "I could 

go," are also future, as applied to the verb "go."- "I might 

go," is future, as applied to the verb "go," though the preterite 
of the verb "may." For the purpose of tracing the source in 
this phraseology, it is of importance to observe that "may" and 
"might," which are different in their own tense, impress differ- 
ent characters on the future event which they are employed to 
introduce. Both of them express an uncertain or conditional 
futurity. But "may" signifies a state of greater preparation, and 
expresses a belief in the probability of the condition being ob- 
tained, and the consequent contingency taking place. "I may if 
you will," expresses greater readiness than "I might if you 
would." The latter phrase is either a hesitating way of inti- 
mating that we are partially prepared, on which account it would 
on some occasions be reckoned less polite: or signifies a hesita- 
tion, originating in our modified hopes respecting the condition, 
and then it, is a more diffident manner of making a proposal. But 
the question recurs, why should the past tense be preferred for 
this uncertain mode of speaking of futurity? We should be 
happy to present a satisfactory solution to that problem." — 1 
answer without hesitation, (and I am justified in my assertion, 
by the judicious observations which I have quoted above, from 
Lowth, Priestly, and James Brown,) that 'a satisfactory solution 
to that problem' can never be presented, so long as might, 
could, would, should, are considered the past tenses of may , can, 
will, and shall.— See the Rules of Syntax, in this grammar. 

My object in making the preceding quotations, has been, to 
show that a Potential mood is by no means suited to the genius 
of our language: and it is presumed that, to any person who re- 
gards consistency, they will appear quite sufficient for this pur- 
pose. In a subsequent part of this work, I shall endeavour to 
give some satisfactory explanations respecting the defective verbs. 

The reader, by turning to the conjugation of the verb "to 
write," will perceive th;it in my theory of a Subjunctive mood, 
I differ widely, very widely, from all my predecessors on this 
subject. Let it be remembered, however, that a great diversity of 
opinion has hitherto existed among ourmost respectable and popu- 
lar Grammarians, with regard to a Subjunctive mood: so that es- 
tablished custom must not be objected to me in this case. I in- 
vite the most fastiious critic to prove/, that my arrangement of 
a Subjunctive mood is not '-'•more consistent and regular, and 
more conformable to the definitions" of the tenses, than any 
other that has been offered to the public. 

The following extracts, from Murray's Grammar, are recom- 
mended to the attention of the reader: 

"We have stated, for the student's information, the different 
opinions of Grammarians respecting the English Subjunctive 
mood: First, that which supposes there is no such mood in our 



ETYMOLOGY. 45 

language; Secondly, that which extends it no farther than the 
variations of the verb extend; Thirdly, that which we have adopt- 
ed, and explained at large; and which, in general, corresponds 
with the views of the most approved writers on English Gram- 
mar. We may add a Fourth opinion; which appears to possess, 
at least, much plausibility. This opinion admits the arrange- 
ment we have given, with one variation, namety, that of assign- 
ing to the first tense of the subjunctive, two forms: 1st, that 
which simply denotes contingency: as, "If he desires it, I will 
perform the operation;" that is, "If he now desires it;" 2dly, 
that which denotes both contingency and futurity: as, "If he de- 
sire it, I will perform the operation;" that is, "If he should here- 
after desire it." The last theory of the subjunctive mood, claims 
the merit of rendering the whole system of the moods consis- 
tent and regular; of being more conformable than any other, to 
the definition of the subjunctive; and of not referring to the indi- 
cative mood, forms of expression, which ill accord with its sim- 
plicity and nature. Perhaps this theory will bear a strict exami- 
nation." — No indeed, Mr. Murray; nor the theory that you havo 
adoptedl 

"Some critics assert," (says Mr. Murray) "that as the phrase, 
"If he desire it," has a future signification, it should be consid- 
ered and arranged as a future tense." — Why not? How can the 
learner reconcile it to reason, how can he conceive that the verb 
desire has both a present and a future signification, at the same 
time? 

"But as all our grammarians" (continues Mr. Murray.) "con- 
cur in classing this form of expression under the present tense; 
as it nearly resembles the form of this tense; and appears to be 
closely connected with it;" (just as closely as is the future!) "and 
as no possible inconvenience can arise from adhering to general 
usage, when the subject is well explained;-' (well explained!) 
"we think that the present arrangement is perfectly justifiable. 
There is certainly no more impropriety' ' (certainly no iiore) 
"in arranging phrases of this nature under the present tense, than 
there is in classing the following modes of expression with that 
tense. "When he arrives, he will hear the news:" "Before he 
decides he should examine with care." "The more she im- 
proves the more amiable she will be." These forms of expres- 
sion clearly refer to future lime, and yet, even by our critics 
themselves, they are acknowledged to be properly placed in the 
present tense." — Sorry, sorry critics these, indeed. But why do 
they acknowledge that these forms of expression, which "clearly 
refer to future time,'" are ^properly placed in the "present tense"? 
Is it because ''they nearly resemble the form of this tense"? If 
this is the best reason they can^advance, the word Tense cannot, 
according to their vocabulary, m<*an u a distinction of time," 
5 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

TENSES. 

Tenses are those modifications of the verb, whicfa 
distinguish time. 

There are six tenses; the Present, the Imperfect, the 
Perfect, the Pluperfect, the First future, and the Second- 
future. 

The Present tense represents an action or event, as 
passing at the time in which it is mentioned: as, "I 
rule; I am ruled; I think; lfear" 

The Imperfect tense represents the action or event, 
either as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished 
at a certain time past; as, "I loved her for her modesty 
and virtue;" * 'They were travelling post when he met 
them." 

The Perfect tense not only refers to what is past, but 
also conveys an allusion (o the present time: as, "I 
have finished my letter;" ,4 1 have seen the person that 
was recommended to me." 

The Pluperfect tense represents a thing not only as 
past, but also as prior to some other point of time spe- 
cified in the sentence: as; "I had finished my letter be- 
fore he arrived." 

The First future tense represents the action as yet 
to come, either with or without respect to the precise 
time, as, "The sun will rise to-morrow;" "I shall see 
them again." 

The Second future tense intimates that the action 
will be fully accomplished at or before the time of 
another future action or event: as, "I shall have dined 
at one o'clock;" "The two houses will have finished 
their business, when the king comes to prorogue them." 
''He will be fatigued before he has walked a mile. ,r 

N. B. — In the last example, the verb "has walked" is as 
clearly in the second-future tense, as "shall have walked^' m 
the following sentence: "He will he fatigued hefove he shall 
have walked a mile." The only difference between these two 
forms of expression, is, that in the former, the verb has walked^ 
is in the subjunctive mood; in the latter, shall havewalked i is the 
indicative mood, used subjunclively. 

So also, in the sentence, "When John comes we shall be 
ready to proceed," the verb "comes" is as manifestly in the 
first-future tense, as "shall come" would be, were it substituted 
for it 



ETYMOLOGY. 47 

Obs. 1. — The present tense, in the indicative mood, expresses 
general truths, and customary actions; as, "Vice produces mise- 
ry." — "She often visits us." We also use it in speaking of 
persons who are dead, but whose works remain; as, "Seneca 
reasons well." 

Obs. 2. — In animated narrative, the present tense is some- 
times substituted (by the figure enallage) for the imperfect; as, 
"As he lay indulging himself in state, he sees let down from the 
ceiling, a glittering sword, hung by a single hair." — TV. of 
Cicero, "Ulysses wakes not knowing where he was." — Pope. 

"Mr. Tooke has remarked that the part of the verb called the 
present indicative is a simple or general indicative, and that no 
tense is implied in it. When we say "the sun rises in summer 
much earlier than in winter," we assert a fact applicable to 
past, present, and future. Of the same nature are mathemati- 
cal theorems and all general propositions. This form of the 
verb might therefore with respect to tense, receive the appella- 
tion of a universal aorist. This, indeed, is the form of the verb 
used for describing present transactions. The idea of present 
time is. on such occasions attached to the sentence, in conse- 
quence of an inference drawn from the nature of the subject." 

"We are not altogether destitute of resources for marking 
with precision the present tense. Every language possesses se- 
parate words for the purpose, such as noio in English, and the 
corresponding words in other languages. It happens that, in 
our language, without the use of such additions, we indicate pre- 
sent time, by employing the substantive verb with the participle 
instead of the usual indicative. "He writes" is the indicative 
without tense. "He is writing" is the present indicative. When 
we say "He writes a good hand," or "He writes to his relations 
every month," we restrict our meaning to no particular time. 
But when we say "He is writing," we transcribe a present trans- 
action. This distinction is entirely conventional." — Academi- 
cian, pp. 234, 235. 

Obs. 3. — "That form which is called the present infinitive is 
in reality of no tense. It is pure, absolute, and aoristic. It may 
be employed without the implication of time, and it admits of 
being applied equally to past, present and future transactions." 
Academician, p. 300. 

N. B. — Mr. Murray's observations respecting this form of the 
verb, are calculated to lead the learner into error. In remarking 
on the sentence "The last week I intended to have written" he 
says, "But it is evidently wrong: for how long soever it now is 
since I thought of writing, "to write" was then present to me; 
and must still be considered as present, when I bring back that 
time, and the thoughts of it." — How he could manage to "bring 
back that time" I must confess myself unable to conceive. I 
had been taught to believe that "time once past never returns. 9 ' 
But a little reflection will suffice to show, that when we bring 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

back the thoughts of that time, ikset the intention, and not u to 
write," was then present. In the sentence "I intend to write 
to-morrow," it is evident that intend is present, but that the 
verb to write is future. According to Mr. Murray's process of 
reasoning, every verb in the imperfect tense, might be proved to 
be in i\\& present tense! 

"In treating of the tenses," says Mr. Murray, "there are two 
things to which attention ought to be principally turned: the 
relation which the^several tenses have to one another, in res- 
pect of time; and the notice which they give of an action's be- 
ing completed or not completed." 

"The present, past, and future tenses, may he used either de- 
finitely or indefinitely, both with respect to time and action. 
When they denote customs or habits, and not individual acts, 
they are applied indefinitely: as, "Virtue promotes happiness:" the 
old Romans governed by benefits more than by fear;" "I shall 
hereafter employ my time more usefully." When they are ap- 
plied to signify particular actions, and to ascertain the precise 
points of time to which they are confined, they are used defi- 
nitely: as in the following instances: "My brother is writing;" 
"He built the house last summer, but did not inhabit it till yes- 
terday;" He will write another letter to-morrow." 

"The different tenses also represent an action as complete or 
perfect, or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, "I am 
writing," "I was writing;" "1 shall be writing," imperfect, un- 
finished actions are signified. But the following examples, "I 
wrote," "I have written," "1 had written," "I shall have writ- 
ten," all denote complete, perfect action." 

PERSONS AND NUMBERS. 

The person and number of a verb, are those modi- 
fications in which it agrees with its subject or nomina- 
tive. 

In each number there are three persons; and in each 
person, two numbers: thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1st per. I love 9 1st per. We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2d per. Ye or You love, 

£d per. He loves; 3d per. They love. 

Thus the verb, in some of its parts, varies its terminations, to 
distinguish, or agree with, the different persons and numbers. 
In the plural number of the verb, there is no variation of ending 
to express the different persons; and the verb, in the three per- 
sons plural, is the same as it is in the first person singular. Yet 
this scanty provision of termination is sufficient for all the pur^ 



ETYMOLOGY. 49 

poses of discourse, and no ambiguity arises from it: the finite 
verb being always (except in the imperative mood) attended, 
either with the noun expressing the subject acting or acted upon, 
or with the pronoun representing it. 

Obs. — In the imperative mood, the nominative case is often 
understood; and the termination of the verb is not varied in the 
second person singular, nor that of the auxiliary do, whenever it 
is employed. 

C:)NJUGATIOx\ OF VERBS. 

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement 
of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. 

Obs. — The moods and tenses are formed partly by inflections, 
or changes made in the verb itself, and partly by the combina- 
tion of the verb or its participle, with a few defective verbs, call- 
ed auxiliaries, or helping verbs. 

There are three principal parts in the conjugation 
of every simple and complete verb; namely, the Present, 
the Preterit, and the Perfect Participle. 

Obs. — The preterit and the perfect participle are regularly 
formed by adding d or ed to the present: as, Pre. I love; Imp. I 
loved; Perf. Part, loved. — Pres. I command; Imp. J commanded. 
Per. Part, commanded. 

An auxiliary is a verb prefixed to one of the princi- 
pal parts of another verb, to express some particular 
mode and time of the being, action, or passion. 

The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall and will, with their va- 
riations; and to, which has no variation. 

Do, as an auxiliary, makes dost in the second person singular; 
and doth or does in the third person, of the present tense, Indi- 
cative mood. In the imperfect tense of the same mood, it makes 
didst, in the second person singular. And these are the onlj 
tenses of this mood in which this verb is used as an auxiliary. 

In the Subjunctive rnood, do (signifying should or shall) be- 
longs to the future tense, and is not varied on account of number 
or persons: as, "If he do come we shall be disappointed." 
"Here, do is a defective verb; and come is in the infinite mood, 
without the sign to. — Do, in the imperative mood, undergoes no 
change. 

Did, in the Subjunctive mood, belongs to the present tense; 
and has the usual personal terminations in the second person 
singular: as, " Didst thou know him, thou wouldst regard him." 

Obs. — It would be improper to say, "Did I know it yesterday, 
I should go," (as we are taught by Mr. Murray and other gram- 
5* 



SO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

marians.)— The proper form is this: "Had I known it (or if I 
had known it) yesterday, I should have gone. 11 

Do, as a principal verb, has doest, and doeth or does, in the se- 
cond and third persons singular of the present indicative.- 

Do, dost, does, as an auxiliary, is sometimes used in the future 
subjunctive: as, "When he does come, we shall be prepared." 

Be is sometimes a verb neuter and sometimes an auxiliary. 

As -a principal verb, the verb to be is complete: as an auxilia- 
ry, it is employed in all the moods and tenses. 

Have is sometimes a verb active, and sometimes an auxiliary. 

As a principal verb, the verb to have is complete: as an aux- 
iliary, it is used only in the perfect and pluperfect tenses of the 
indicative mood, in the past tenses of the subjunctive mood, also 
in the second-future tense of the subjunctive mood, in the per- 
fect infinitive, and in the compound participle. 

Shall and will, as auxiliaries, are used only in the first and 
second future tenses of the indicative mood. Will, as a princi- 
pal verb, is regularly conjugated: as an auxiliary, it makes wilt 
in the second person, singular; and ivill, in the third. 

The auxiliary to, is confined to the infinitive mood. 

Verbs are conjugated in the following manner: 
Conjugation of the regular active verb 

TO LOVE. 

Principal Parts. 

Pres. Love. Imp. Loved, Perf Part. Loved. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural 

1st per. Hove, 1, We love, 

2d per. Thou lovest, 2. Ye or you love, 

3d per. He loves; 3. They love. 

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the aux« 
iliary do to the verb: thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do love, !. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love; 3, They do love. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

Imperfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved; 3. They loved. 

This tense may also be formed by prefixing the aux- 
iliary did to the verb: thus, 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love, 1. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love; 3. They did love. 

Perfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved; 3. They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. T had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved; S. They had loved. 

First-future Tense. 

This tense prefixes the auxiliary shall or will to the 
verb; thus, 

1. Simply to express a future action or event: 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love; 3. They will love. 

2. To express a promise, volition, command, or 
threat: 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will love, 1. We will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 

3. He shall love; 3. They shall love. 

Second-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou will have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. 

Obs. — Shalt and shall may also be used in the second and 
third persons of this tense, when the verb is used suhjunctively; 
as, "When he shall have finished the work, we will return." 

Note I.— In a familiar question or negation, the compound 
form of the present and imperfect tenses is preferable to the 
simple. But in the solemn or the poetic style, the simple form 
is more dignified and graceful: as," U riders loudest thou what thou 

readest?"— "Of whom speokcth the prophet this?" "What I 

Heard ye not of lowland war?*" 

Note 2. — Tn interrogative sentences, the meaning of the aux- 
iliaries shall and will is reversed. When preceded by a con- 
junction implying condition or uncertainty, their import is some- 
what varied. 

Note 3.— The third person singular of the present indicative, 
was anciently formed by adding th to verbs ending in e, and eth 
to all others. This termination is now confined to the solemn 
style, and is little used. 

Note 4.— At present, the customary mode of familiar as well 
as complimentary address, is altogether plural; both the verb and 
the pronoun being used in that form. The second person sin- 
gular is generally employed only in addresses to the Deity, or in 
the poetic style; and sometimes in burlesque. Ye is obsolete. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

2d per. Love, or love thou, 2. Love, or love you, or 
or do thou love. do you love. 

Obs. — In the Greek language, which has three numbers, the 
imperative mood is used in the second and third persons of them 
all; and has also several tenses, some of which cannot be clearly 
rendered in English. In Latin this mood has a distinct form for 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

the third person both singular and plural. In Italian, Spanish, 
and French, the first person plural is also given to it. Imitations 
of some of these forms are occasionally employed in English, 
particularly by the poets. Such imitation? must be referred to 
this mood, unless by elipsis and transposition we make them 
out to be something else. The following are examples: — "Bless- 
ed be he that blesseth thee." — "Thy kingdom come. 1 * 
"Fall he that must, beneath his rival's arms, 
''And live the rest, secure of future harms." — Pope, 
"My soul, turn from them — turn we to survey," &c. 

Goldsmith, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If 1 loved, J. If we loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, .2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3- If they loved. 

This tense cannot be used to express a past, action or events 
except in recital. It is a kind of aorist, or indefinite tense; and 
is always preceded by the conjunction if, though, whether, that, 
or unless. 

Pretend Imperfect, or Pluperfect Tense : 
, Singular. Plural, 

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 

2. If thou hadst loved, 2. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved; 3. If they hadloved. 

The precise tense is determined by the drift of the sentence. 
This form of the verb is usually preceded by the conjunction if, 
though, whether, or unless. 

Obs. 1. — Sometimes, this form of the verb is elegantly made 
use of without being preceded by a conjunction, arid having the 
nominative case between the auxiliary and the verb: as, "Had I 
seen him, I should have known him." 

Obs. 2. — Sometimes also, the conjunctive form of the verb is 
used indicatively: as, "Had he done this, he had escaped." That 
is, "If he had done this, he'woutd have escaped.''' 

First future Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. When I love, 1, When we love, 

2. When thou lovest, 2. When you love, 

3. When he loves; 3, When they love. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This tense is preceded by the conjunctions, when, before, till, 
until, if, that, after, as soon as, so soon as, and perhaps some 
others. 

Second-future Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. When I have loved, 1. When we have loved, 

2. When thou hast loved, 2. When you have loved, 

3. When he has loved; 3. When they have loved. 

This tense is preceded by the same conjunctions that are used 
in the first future tense. 

Obs. — The defective verb should is often expressed in the first- 
future tense of the subjunctive mood. Sometimes, in the ele- 
vated style, it is omitted and understood; and the infinitive which 
it governs is retained: as, "If thou forsake him, lie will cast thee 
off forever." That is, "If thou shouldst forsake him," &c. 

"Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any lan- 
guage," says Mr. Murray, "have arisen from the elipsis of some 
words, which were originally inserted in the sentence, and made 
it regular; and it is probable, that this has been generally the 
case with respect to the conjunctive form of words, now in use; 
which will appear from the following exam-pies: "We shall over- 
take him though he run;" that is, "though he should run;" — 
"Unless he act prudently, he will not accomplish his purpose;" 
that is, "unless he shall act prudently." (Should, instead of 
shall, would be right.) — "If he succeed and obtain his end, he 
will not be the happier for it;" thai is, "If he should succeed^ 
and should obtain his end." These remarks and examples are 
designed to show the original of many of our present conjunctive 
forms of expression; and to enable the student to examine the 
propriety of using them, by tracing the words in question to their 
proper origin and ancient connexions." 

This "conjunctive form" of the verb, may, therefore, be satis- 
factorily explained upon the principle of ellipsis. 

Should, in the subjunctive mood, is often used without a con- 
junction: thus, "Should it rain to-morrow, we shall stay at 
home." 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present. To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

N. B. — It has already been observed that what is called the 
present tense of the infinitive mood, is properly an aorist, or gew* 
eral infinitive. Indeed it has more frequently a future, than a 
present, signification. 



ETYMOLOGY. 55 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. Loving. 
Perfect. Loved, 
Compound. Having loved, 

General Observations: 

"The form (of the imperative mood) most frequently used in 
Latin arid in English has been called the present imperative; but 
a little attention will shew that imperatives are essentially fu- 
ture. The act to be performed must be subsequent in time to 
the command. In many instances they may be separated by a 
considerable interval, without any alteration in the form of the 
verb employed; as when we say, "come to this place to-morrow." 
Though sensible of this circumstance, grammarians seem not to 
have been aware of its importance in demonstrating the tense, 
proper to this form of the verb. Perhaps a vague idea existed, 
that the time of the giving of the command ought to fix its tense; 
but this is obviated by the slightest reflection on the subject, as 
the act performed by the speaker in every sort of sentence is 
present. Perhaps the immediate nature oi the influence intended 
to be produced by the imperative on the mind of the person 
addressed, has, though future, been considered as sufficient to 
entitle it to the appellation of present. But this influence is in 
no respect a proper foundation for a distinction of tense. All 
'anguage is intended to produce an immediate effect on the mind. 
It is therefore solely with the time of the action or event speci- 
fied in the verb, that philosophical grammar is concerned in 
tracing the different tenses. The future (indicative) in English 
is sometimes used instead of the imperative, as "thou shalt not 
kill;" "thou shalt not steal.'' Perhaps grammarians who de» 
light in distinctions would perceive in this phraseology, as com- 
pared to the common English imperative, some analogy to the 
varieties of imperative in the Greek language, and would de- 
nominate the sentences last mentioned future imperatives, in 
contradistinction to the common form called the present. But 
in the meaning of the sentences the tense is equally future in 
both.''' — Academician. 

"The Greek language has various imperatives, which gram- 
marians arrange along with the different tenses, and distinguish by 
the names of the present, the aorist, and even the preterite im- 
peratives. But this diversity of form can produce no corres- 
ponding diversity of tense, unless this should consist in discrimi- 
nations in the portions of future time to which the commands 
refer. We may order a person to begin an aoiion at a particu- 
lar time; or we may order him to he engaged in some occupation 
which is supposed to be previously begun; or we may order him 
to have an action completed. But with reference to the prima- 
py division of tenses into the past, present, and future, the im- 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

perative must be regarded as essentially future. v — Academician. 
p. 234. 

This train of reasoning is judicious; and the same method of 
arguing is quite sufficient of itself, setting aside the vlility and 
even the necessity of the case, to establish the propriety of ad- 
mitting a future participle in English. It deserves the serious 
attention of the student. 



OfPr 



at Tir. 



Every point of space or duration, how minute soever it may 
be, (says Mr. Murray) has some degree of extension. Neither 
the present nor any other instant of time is wholly unextended. 
Nay, we cannot conceive, as Dr. Beattie justly observes, an un- 
extended instant: and that which we call the present, may in faci 
admit of very considerable extension. While I write a letter, 
or read a booh, 1 say, that I am reading or writing it, though it 
should take up an hour, a day, a week, or a month; the whole 
time being considered as present, which is employed in the pre- 
sent action. — So, while 1 bnild a house, though that should be 
the work of many months, I speak of it in the present time, and 
say that I am building it. In like manner, in contradistinction 
to the century past, and to that which is to come, we may con- 
sider the whole space of a hundred years as lime present, when 
we speak of a series of actions, or of a slate of existence, that 
is co-extended With ii; as in the following example: ''In this 
century ice are moie neglectful of the ancients, and ice arc con- 
sequently more ignorant than they were in the last, or peihaps 
they will be in the next." Nay, the entire term of man's pioba- 
tionary state in this world, when opposed to ihat eternity which 
is before him, is considered as present time by those who say, 
"In this state we see darkly as through a glass; but in a fulur« 
life, our faith will be lost in vision, and we shall know even a* 
we are known." — Murray'* s Grammar. € 

Of the Perfect Tense. 

"When the particular time of any occurrence is specified, as 
prior to the present time, this tense is not used; for it would bo 
improper to say, "1 have seen him yesterday:" or, "I have fin- 
ished my work iast week." In these cases the imperfect is ne- 
cessary: as, "I saw him yesterday;" "[finished my work last 
week. But when we speak indefinitely of any thing past, rs 
happening or not happening in the day, year, or age, in which 
we mention it, the perfect must be employed: as, "I have been 
there this morning;" "I have travelled much this year:'' "We 
hace escaped many dangers through life." In referring, howe- 
ver, to such a division of the day as is past before the time of 
our speaking, we use the imperfect, as, "They came home early 
this inorning; M "He ms with them at three o'clock this after- 
uwon." — Id. 



ETYMOLOGY. 57 

"The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a 
thing that is past; but the former denotes it in such a manner, 
that there is still actually remaining some part of the time to 
slide away, wherein we declare the thing has been done; where- 
as the imperfect denotes the thing or action passed, in such a 
manner, that nothing remains of that time in which it was done. 
If we speak of the present century, we say, "Philosophers have 
made great discoveries in the present century:" but if we speak 
of the last century, we say, "Philosophers made great discove- 
ries in the last century. v "He has been much afflicted this 
year.'* "I have this week read the king's proclamation;" "I 
have heard great news this morning:" in these instances, "He 
has beenS' "I have read" and "heard/' denote things that are 
past; but they occur in this year, in this week, and to-day; and 
still there remains a part of this year, week, and day, whereof I 
speak." — Id. 

"In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the 
action is connected with the present time, by the actual existence 
either of the author or of the work, though it may have been 
performed many centuries ago; but if neither the author nor the 
work now remains, it cannot be used. We may say, "Cicero 
has written orations;" but we cannot say, "Cicero has written 
poems;" because the orations are in being, but the poems are 
lost."— Id. 

"It is proper to observe, on this occasion," says Mr. Murray, 
in speaking of the imperfect tense, "that in such sentences as 
the following; "He wrote to him yesterday;" "They behaved 
themselves at that period very properly;" the precise time of 
the action is not denoted by the tense of the verb itself, but by 
the addition of the words yesterday, and at that period." — The 
same or similar observations would equally apply to all the other 
tenses of the verb. 

Conjugation of the irregular active verb 
TO WRITE. 
Principal Parts. 
Present. Imperfect. Pcrf. Participle. 

Write, Wrote. Written. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 





Singular. 




Plural 


1. 

2. 
3. 


1 write, 
Thou writest, 
He writes; 
6 


1. 
3. 


We write, 
You write, 
They write. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 





1. 

£. 


Imperfect 
Singular, 

I wrote, 
Thou wrotest, 
He wrote; 


Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We wrote, 

2. You wrote, 

3. They wrote. 




1. 

2. 
3. 


Perfect '. 
Singular. 
I have written, 
Thou hast written 
He has written; 


Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We have written, 

2. You have written, 

3. They have written. 




1. 

2. 
3. 


Pluperfect 
Singular. 
I had written, 
Thou hadst written, 
He had written; 


Tense. 

Plural. 

1. We had written, 

2. You had written, 

3. They had written. 




i. 

2. 
3. 


First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 
I shall write, 1. We shall write, 
Thou wilt write, 2, You will write, 
He will write; 3; They will write. 


1, 

2. 
3. 


Second-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 
I shall have written, 1. We shall have written, 
Thou wilt have written, 2. You will have written, 
He will have written, 3. They will have written. 






IMPERATIVE MOOD. 


Singular. 2. Write, or write thou, or Do thou write, 
Plural. 2. Write, or write you, or Do you write. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I wrote, 1. If we wrote, 

2. If thou wrotest, 2. If you wrote, 
a, If he wrote; 3. If they wrote. 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

This form of the verb belongs to the imperfect indicative, when 
a negation is not implied. 

Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I had written, 1. If we had written, 

2. If thou hadst written, 2, If you had written, 

3. If he had written; 3. If they had written. 

In this tense also a negation is implied; This form 
belongs also to the indicative mood. 

First-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. When I write, 1. When we write, 

2. When thou writest, 2. When you write, 

3. When he writes; 3. When they write. 

Second-future Tense. 
Sing ular. Plu ral. 

1. When I have written, 1. When we have written, 

2. When thou hast written, 2. When you have written, 

3. When he has written; 3. When they have written. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present or General Infinitive. To write. Perfect. To 
have writen. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Writing. 

Perfect, Written. 

Compound, Having written. 

Conjugation of the auxiliary and neuter verb 
TO BE. 

Principal Parts. 
Present, Am; Imp. W r as. Perf. Participle. Been. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

. Present Tense, 

0bs. — Be was formerly used in the indicative present: as ? 
■ "We be twelve brethren." — "What be these two olive branches'?" 
But this construction is now obsolete; except in the phrase, 
"The powers that be." 





Si»gw/ar e 


Plural. 




1. I am, 

2. Thou art, 

3. He is; 


1. We are, 

2. You are, 

3. They are. 




Imperfect 


Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


i. 

3, 


I was, 
Thou wast, 
He was, 


1. We were? 

2. You were, 

3. They were. 




Perfect Tense. 




Singular* 


Plural. 


3, 


I have been, 
Thou hast been, 
He has been; 


1 . We have been, 

2. You have been, 

3. They have been, 




Pluperfect 


Tense. 




Singular* 


Plural* 


L 
2 6 


I had been, 
Thou hadst been, 
He had been; 


1. We had been, 

2. You had been, 

3. They had been 



First-future Tense. 
Singular- r Plural. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be; 3. They will be o 

Or, I will be, Thou sh&lt he, He shall be t he* 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

Second-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been; 3. They will have been* 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular, 2. Be, or be thou, or Do thou be- 
Plural. 2. Be, or be you, or Do you be. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural.. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wert, 2. If y v ou were, 

3. If he were; 3, If they were. 

Obs. 1; — If I be, If thou be, If he be, fyc. are frequently em- 
ployed in the present tense, without having any reference or al- 
lusion to future time; as, in the following examples: "If this 
doctrine be not true, we must admit that king, lords and com- 
mons, have no rule to direct their resolutions," &c. — Junius. "If 
his plan for the service of the current year be not irrevocably 
fixed on, let me warn him to think seriously of consequences, 
before he ventures to increase the public debt."— Idem. "And 
if the discipline of the army be in any degree preserved, what 
thanks are due to a man, whose cares," &c. — Idem. "But now, 
it seems, if there be no law, the house of commons have a right 
to make one; and if there be no precedent, they have a right to 
create the first." &c. — Idem. 

In all these sentences, the word is might be used instead of 
be; but the latter expresses the doubt more forcibly. The con- 
struction of this form of the verb has never been satisfactorily 
explained. Mr. Murray, and other grammarians say, that ,"That 
part of the verb which grammarians call the present tense of the 
subjunctive mood, has a future signification." But the senten- 
ces that I have quoted from Junius, (and I might adduce a thou- 
sand similar examples, both from him and from other celebrated 
authors,) will suffice to show that this remark is not correct. It 
is true that this form of the verb has frequently a future signifi- 
cation; but it is no less true that it frequently has not. How 
then are we to account for this apparent discrepancy? In my 
humble opinion, it can be done, only by admitting that the word 
be is sometimes a defective verb belonging to the subjunctive mood. 
As such, it may be employed to express either piesent ou future 
6* 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

time. It may also, like other verbs, bo used, eliptically, in the 
future tense. 

Obs. 2. — In conversation and familiar writing, we often use 
the following forms of expression: "If he was here now, we 
could settle this affair;" "If he was ordered, this moment, to 
set out, it would be impossible for him to obey:" but it would be 
more elegant to say, "If he were here now," &c. "If he were 
ordered," &c. And here, I will not conceal my opinion, that, in 
the latter examples, the word 'were* is a defective verb, and that 
it is merely a different form of the defective verb be, as might, 
or could is a different form, but not a different tense, of may or 
Gan, 

Imperfect Tense- 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, 2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been; 3. If they had been. 

N. B. — This form is also used for the peifect and pluperfect 
tenses. 

First -future Tense* 
Singular. Plural* 

1. When I am, 1. When we are, 

2. When thou art, 2. When you are, 

3. When he is; 3. When they are- 

Second-future Tense. 
Singular^ Plural. 

1. When I have been, 1. When we have been, 

2. When thou hast been, 2. When you have been, 

3. When he has been; 3. When they have been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 
Present. To be. Perfect* To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. Being. 
Perfect Been. 
Compound. Having been. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 

Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated, by adding 
the Imperfect Participle to the auxiliary verb to be, through all 
its changes; as, I am writing — He is sitting — We are going. 
This form of the verb denotes a continuance of the action or 
the state of being, and is, on many occasions, preferable to the 
simple form of the verb. 

Obs. — Verbs which, in their simple form, imply continuance, 
do not admit of the compound form: thus we say, "I respect 
him — I love him;" but not, "I am respecting him — I am loving 
him." 

Compound form of the active verb 
WRITE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. 1 am writing, 1. We are writing, 

2. Thou art writing, 2. You are writing, 

3. He is writing; 3. They are writing. 

Imperfect Tensei 

Singular. Plural. 

; 1. I was writing, 1. We a#© writing, 

i 2. Thou w©*fc writing, 2. You were writing, 

3, He was writing; 3. They were writing. 

And so forth, through all the moods and tenses. 

Obs. — Verbs of this form have sometimes a passive significa- 
tion: as, "While the work of the temple was carrying on.' 7 — 
Owen. Some modern writers would say, "While the work of 
the temple was being carried on. But this form of expression 
does not appear to be conformable to the practice of the gene- 
rality of correct writers. 

PASSIVE VERBS. 

A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect participle 
to the auxiliary to be, through all its changes of number, person, 
mood and tense, in the following manner. 

Obs. 1. — Passive verbs are formed from active-transitive verbs. 
A. few active-transitive verbs, however, that merely imply m«- 



U ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

tioix, or change of condition, may be put into this form, with a 
neuter signification; making not passive but neuter verbs, which 
express nothing more than the state which results from the 
change: as, I am come; He is risen; They are fallen. 

Obs. 2- — Verbs passive are Called regular, when they form 
their perfect participle by the addition of d or ed to the verb: as, 
from the verb love, is formed the passive, "I am loved, I. was lov- 
ed, I shall be loved," &c. 

Conjugation of the passive verb 

TO BE LOVED. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved; 3. They are loved. 

Imperfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved; 3. They were loved. 

Perfect Tense, 
Singular. Plurah 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thouhast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved; 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved; 3. They had been loved. 

First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

£ Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

Second-future Tewe. 
Singular. Plural 

1 . I shall have been loved, 1 . We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been 2. You will have been loved, 

loved, 

3. He will have been 3. They will have been lov- 

loved; ed. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Sing. 2. Be [thou] loved; or Do thou be loved, 
Plur. 2. Be [ye or you] loved, or Do you be loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. . Plural. 

1. If 1 were loved, 1. If we were loved,' 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved; 3. If they were loved. 

Jutptrfcci, Fzrfecti or Pluperfect Tense- 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had been loved, 1. If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved, 2. If you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved; 3. If they had been loved. 

First-future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. When I am loved, 1. When we are loved, 

2. When thou art loved, 2. When you are loved, 

3. When he is loved; 3. When they are loved, 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. 1. When I have been loved, 

2. When thou hast been loved, 

3. When he has been loved; 

Plural. 1. When we have been loved, 

2. When you have been loved, 

3. When they have been loved. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To be loved. Perfect. To have been 
loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. Being loved. 

Perfect. Loved, 

Compound. Having been loved, 

A verb is conjugated negatively, by placing the adverb no t 
after it, or after the first auxiliary. In the infinitive mood, the 
adverb must always precede the particle to. Thus: 

Ind. I love not, or I do not love, or I did not love, I have 
not loved, I had not Wed, I shall not love, I shall not have lov- 
ed. Imp. Love not, or do not love. Subj. If I loved not, or 
u I did not love, or did I not love, If I had not loved, or had I 
not loved, &c. Inf. Not to love, Not to have loved. Part. 
Wot loving, Not loved, Not haying loved. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively, in the indicative mood, 
by placing the nominative after it, or after the first auxiliary: as, 

oi «; , Do * ,ove? Di(1 * love? Have l loved? Had I loved? 
SliaU I love? Shall I have loved? * * 

Note.— When the defective verb may, can, must, could, would, 
should, ought, need, durst or dare, is employed in asking ques- 
tions, the nominative is always placed immediately after it. 
Thus:— May I write? Must I not write? Can 1 write? Could I 
have written? Ought he to write? Ought he not to have writ- 
ten? Dare he go? Need he do it? Need he have acted so has- 
tily? &c. 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively, in 'the in- 
dicative mood, by placing the nominative and the adverb not 
after the verb ; or after the first auxiliary: as, 

Ind. Do I not love? Did I not love? Have I not loved? Had 
I not loved? Shall I not love? Shall I not have loved? 

COMPOUND PASSIVE VERBS, &c. 

It has been shown in a preceding part of this work, that 
words which are usually employed as prepositions, or adverbs, 
or even nouns, are sometimes taken into composition with verbs 
and are consequently used as auxiliaries, or parts of verbs, as in 
the following modes of expression: "The property was given 
y; A lavyyer was applied to; He was taken care of; That was 
taken notice of," fyc. • 



ETYMOLOGY. 6? 

The folloioing observations arc taken from the Academician. 
"In some instances an active verb which we are in the habit 

of connecting with nouns by means of prepositions, is used to 
form a transitive verb, by being compounded with a preposition 
governing the accusative, and evidently derives its transitive pow- 
er from the preposition. Such a verb, like others which govern 
the same case, may be used in the passive voice. In Latin we 
have such words as initur, "it is entered on. 5 ' In English the 
same thing takes place, though the two words continue separate. 
The phrase thus formed is treated like a compound word, and 
made to pass through variations similar to those to which entire 
words are subjected. Such are the phrases "to laugh at," and 
"to trifle with;'' the preposition and the verb coalesce to form 
a sort of a compound verb, which is used passively in the phra- 
ses "to be laughed at," and "to be trifled with." This species 
of coalescence of words into phrases, subjected to a peculiar in- 
flection, even takes place in instances in which an active verb 
governs a noun in the accusative, and then leads to another by 
means of a preposition: as in the phrase 'Ho make a fool of:" 
for we do not say in the passive, "a fool was made of him," but 

'he was made a fool of." We have many analogous examples; 
as, "to be made game of," "to be evil spoken of," "to be taken 
notice of," ^to be taken care of." Some even say, 'Ho be paid 
attention to." This last expression is inelegant, because it shows 
an unsuccessful grasping at a variety of accommodation." 

In some familiar phrases, the subject and the object of an affir- 
mation seem to be transposed. We say, "They were asked a 
question," when we mean that a question was asked them. 
"They were offered a' pardon;" i. e/a pardon icas offered to 
them. — Priestley s Grammar. 

None of our grammarians, so far as I am informed, have ac- 
counted for expressions of the description treated of in the last 
paragraph, in a more satisfactory manner than Doctor Priestly 
has done. Yet I must confess I am inclined to doubt the pro- 
priety of his explanation, 

The sentence. " He a as taught grammar ," which is analogous 
to the phrase "They were asked a question," is certainly good 
English— better , I will venture to affirm, than "Grammar icas 
taught to him. 11 In the active voice, we say "J taught him 
grammar."* and not "I taught to him grammar," or "I taught 
grammar to him/' In parsing the sentence "Who taught him?" 
I presume that any good instructer would direct his pupil to 
ascribe the government of the pronoun him to the verb taught, 
instead of referring it to a preposition understood. What good 
reason, then, can be assigned for not parsing the pronoun in the 
same manner, when the word grammar is subjoined to it? In 
Latin, verbs of asking and teaching; govern two accusatives; and 
their passives retain the latter of these accusatives: as, "Docuit 
me grammatical^ He taught me grammar;" u Doceor grammati- 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

cam, I am taught grammar/' Here the analogy is perfect: and 
it appears to me that there can be no more impropriety in as- 
signing the government of two cases to the English verb, than 
to the Latin verb. 

But admitting thai it would be proper to say "I taught gram- 
mar to him;" would this prove that, in the sentence "1 taught 
him grammar," the word him is governed by the preposition to, 
implied? It would not. For these are two different contrivan- 
ces for expressing the same sentiment: and, as Mr. Murray 
properly observes, "the position is not tenable, that equivalence 
in sense implies similarity in grammatical nature. It proves too 
much, and therefore nothing. This mode of reasoning would 
confound the acknowledged grammatical distinction of words. ** 
The following forms are all equivalent in sense; but different in 
construction: "Cela hanc rem uxorem;" li Cela uxorem de hue 
re;" "Ccla uxori hanc rem." , 

Mr. James Brown, in treating of the sentence "I was taught 
Grammar," says, "The passive voice is imperative against the 
objective case; but it will admit the subjective case; as, who 
is the orator of the day.? I am considered he, Sir. Not I am 
considered him. Finally, in order to ascertain whether a verb 
is transitive or intransitive, substitute the subjective or the 
objective case of pronouns.'' — American Grammar, p. J 07. 

Now, by this rule of Mr. Brown's, I shall quickly show that, in 
the sentence "I was taught Grammar," the noun Grammar is 
in the objective case. Were we to substitute the pronoun it 
for the noun Grammar, the question could not be thereby decid- 
ed: for it is of the same form in both the subjunctive (oi nom- 
inative) and the objective cases. But we can arrive at a satis- 
factory decision, by considering the following sentence; "I was 
taught Mathematics-" which is perfectly analogous to the sentence 
"I was taught Grammar. For the noun mathematics being plu- 
ral, we can substitute a plural pronoun, which has a diffeient form 
in the objective, from thnt which it has in the nominative case: 
Thus, "1 was taught them." Not I was taught they. "I was 
taught, the arts find sciences." I was taught them: — certainly 
not they. In the sentence "I am considered he, Sir," there is 
an elipsis of the verb to be. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

An irregular verb is a verb that does not form the 
the preterite and the perfect participle by assuming d 
or ed: as, 

Presents Imperfect. Perfect Par. 

T begin, I began, begun. • 
I know, I knew, known, 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

Irregular verbs are of various sorts. 

1. Such as have the pressnt and imperfect tenses, and 
perfect participle the same: as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Cost, cost, cost. 

Put. put put. 

2. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect 
participle the same: as, 

Present. Imperfect. Perfect Part. 

Abide, abode, abode, 

Sell. sold. sold. 

3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect 
participle different: as, 

Present. 



Arise, 
Blow. 



Imperfect. 

arose, 
blew. 



Perfect Part. 

arisen, 
blown. 



The following is a list of the irregular verbs, as they 
are now generally used. Those marked with an R, 
admit also of the regular form of conjugation. 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Part. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abode. 


Am, 


was, 


been. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, R. 


awaked. 


Bear, to bring forth^ 


, bare, 


born. 


Bear, to carry, 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beaten, or beat, 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bent, R. 


bent, R. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Bereave, 


bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bid, 


bidden, or bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 



TO 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Present, 



Imperfect. 



ureeu, 
Bring, 


uieu, 

brought, 


Build, 


built, 


Burst, 


burst, 


Buy, 


bought, 


Cast, 


cast, 


Catch, 


caught, R. 


Chide, 


chid, 


Choose, 


chose, 


Cleave, to adhere, 


clave, R. 


Cleave, to split, 


clove, or cleft, 


Clin?, 


clung, 


Clothe, 


clothed, 


Come, 


came, 


Cost, 


cost, 


Crow, 


crew, R, 


Creep, 


crept, 


Cut, 


cut, 


Deal, 


dealt, R. 


Dig, 


dug, R. 


Do, 


did, 


Draw, 


drew, 


Drive, 


drove, 


Drink, 


drank, 


Dwell, 


dwelt, R. 


Eat, 


eat, or ate, 


Fall, 


fell, 


Feed, 


fed, 


Feel, 


felt, 


Fight, 


fought, 


Find, 


found, 


Flee, 


fled, 


Fling, 


flung, 


Fly, 


flew, 


Forsake, 


forsooki 


Freeze, 


froze, 


Forget, 


forgot, 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


Forbid, 


forbade, or forbid, 


Get, 


got, 


Gild, 


gilt, R. 


Gird, 


girt, R. 


Give, 


gave, 


Go, 


went, 


Grave, 


graved, 


* Gotten is nearly 


obsolete. Its compc 


good use* 





Perfect ParU 

bred. 

brought. 

built. 

burst. 

bought. 

cast. 

caught, R. 

chidden, or chid. 

chosen. 

cleaved. 

cleft, or cloven. 

clung. 

clad, R. 

come. 

cost. 

crowed. ' 

crept. 

cut. 

dealt, R. 

dug, R. 

done. 

drawn. 

driven. 

drunk, or drank, 

dwelt, R. 

eaten, or eat. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

forgotten, or forgot. 

forborne. 

forbidden,or forbid. 

got, or gotten,* 

gilt, R. 

girt, R. 

given. 

gone. 

graven. 

md forgotten is etili in 



Present. 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Have, 

Hang, 

Hear, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Keep, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lade, 

Lead, 

Leave, 

Let, 

Lend, 

Lie, to lie dozen* 

Load, 

Lose, 

Make, 

Meet, 

Mow, 

Pay, 

Mean, 

Put, 

Partake, 

Quit, 

Read, 
Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride ; 

Ring, 

Rise, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw, 

Say, 

See, 

Seek, 

Seethe, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, 

Shake, 

Shave, 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Imperfect. 


Perfect Part. 


ground, 


ground. 


grew, 


grown. 


had. 


had. 


hung, R. 


hung, R. 


heard, 


heard. 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 


hid, 


hidden, or hid. 


hit, 


hit. 


held, 


held. 


hurt, 


hurt. 


kept, 


kept. 


knit, R. 


knit, R 


knew, 


known. 


laded, 


laden. 


led, 


led. 


left, 


left. 


let, 


let. 


lent, 


lent. 


lay, 


lain. 


loaded, 


laden, R. 


lost, 


lost. 


made, 


made. 


met, 


met. 


mowed, 


mown, R. 


paid, 


paid. 


meant 


meant. 


put, 


put. 


partook, 


parfaken. 


quit, R. 


quit, R. 


read, 


read. 


rent, 


rent. 


rid, 


rid. 


rode, 


rode, ridden.* 


rung, or rang, 


rung. 


rose, 


risen. 


rived, 


riven. 


ran, 


mn. 


sawed, 


sawn, R. 


said, 


said. 


saw, 


seen. 


sought, 


sought. 


seethed, or sod, 


sodden. j 


sold, 


sold. 


sent, 


sent. 


set, 


set. 


shook, 


shaken. 


shaved, 


shaven, R, 



71 



* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 



12 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 



Present. 



Imperfect, 



Perfect Part* 



Shear, 


sheared, 


shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine j 


shone, R, 


shone, R, 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. i 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot. 


shot. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, or sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, or sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat, or sitten. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


slidden. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, R. 


slit, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown. 


Speak ? 


spoke, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, 


sped, 
spent. 


Spend* 


spent, 


Spill, 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, or spat, 


spitten, or spit, 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, • 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung, or sprang, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck.- 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode, 


stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, or stricken. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striven. 


Strow, or strew, 


strowed, or strewed 


, strown, strowed, or > 
strewed, $ 






Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R, 


sweatted. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, R. 


Swim, 


swam, or swum, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung, 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught, 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told* 


told. 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Imperfect, 


Perfect Part. 


thought, 


thought. 


throve, R. 


thriven. 


threw, 


thrown. 


thrust, 


thrust. 


trod, 


trodden, or trod. 


waxed, 


waxen, R. 


wore. 


worn. 


wove, 


woven. 


wept, 


wept. 


wet, 


wet, R. 


won. 


won. 


wound, 


wound. 


wrought, R. 


wrought, R. 


wrung, 


wrung* 


wrote, 


written. 



73 



Present. 

Think, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Thrust, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 

Weave, 

Weep, 

Wet, 

Win, 

Wind, 

Work, 

Wring, 

Write, 

In' the preceding list, many of the compound irregular verbs 
are omitted, — such as bespeak, mistake, overthrow, &c. which 
follow the same form as the verbs speak, tahz, throw, &c. with 
which they are compounded. As some of the preceding verbs 
may be conjugated regularly as well as irregularly, custom and 
judgment must determine to which form the preference is to be 
given. Those which are irregular on:y in familiar writing and 
discourse, and which are improperly terminated by t instead of 
ed, are not inserted. Of this class, are such as learnt, spelt, 
latcht, &c. the use of which termination should be carefully 
avoided in every sort of composition, and even in pronunciation. 
These, however, must be carefully distinguished from those ne- 
cessary and allowable contractions, which are well established; 
such as crept, dwelt, lost, felt, &c. Words that are obsolete have 
also been omitted. 

In the preceding list, those preterits and participles which are 
preferable, and best supported by authorities, are placed first. 
Some of those which are placed last, are now little used. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A defective verb is a verb which wants some of the 
principal parts* 

The defective verbs are do, be, let, may, can, must, 
shall, will, ought, need, and dare. 

Each of these, except must, ought, and need, hai* 
two forms, one of which expresses absolute certainty, 
and may, therefore, be called the absolute form; and the 
other implies a condition, and may, therefore, be called 
the conditionab&e form* 
7* 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 

The following are the different forms and inflections 
of the verbs do, 6e, may, can, shall, and will. 

DO. 

Absolute Form. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. If I do, 1. If we do, 

2. If thou do, 2; If you do, 

3. If he do; 3. If they do. 

This form of the verb do always belongs to the Subj. 
mood, when it refers to future time. 

Conditional Form. 



14l 



Sing. Plural. 

1. Did I, or if I did, 1. Did we, or if k© did, 

2. Didst thou, or if thou didst, 2. Did you, or if you did, 

3. Did he. or if he did; 3. Did they, or if they did. 

This form also belongs to the Subjunctive mood when 
it does not refer to time past. 

BE. 

Absolute Form, 
Sing. Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 

Conditional Form. 
Sing* PluraL 

1. Were I, or if I were. 1, Were we, &c. 

2. Wert thou, or if thou wert, 2. Were you, &c 
a. Were he, or if he were: 3. Were they, &c« 



ETYMOLOGY. T5 



MAY, CAN, SHALL, WILL, DARE, 

Absolute Form. 
Sing. Plural. 

1. I may, 1. We may, 

2. Thoumayst, 2. You may, 

3. He may; 3. They may. 

Conditional Form* 
Sing. Plural. 

1. I might, 1. We might, 

2. Thou mightst, 2. You might, 

3. He might; 3, They might. 

Absolute Form* 
Sing. Plural* 

1. I can, 1. We can, 

2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 

3. He can; 3. They can. 





Conditional 


Form- 




Sing. 


Plural. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


I could, 
Thou couldst, 
He could; 


1. We could, 

2. You could, 

3. They could. 




Absolute Form* 




Sing. 


Plural. 


1. 

2, 
3 


I shall, 
Thou shah, 
He shall; 


1. We shall, 

2. You shall, 

3. They shall- 



Conditional Form. 
Sing. Plural. 

1. I should, 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 

3. He should; 3. They should- 



T6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Absolute Form* 





Sing, 




Plural. 


1. 

2, 

3, 


I will, 
Thou wilt. 
He will; 


1. 

2. 
3. 


We will, 
You will, 
They will. 




Conditional Form. 






Sing. 




Plural. 


1. 

2. 

3. 


I would, 
Thou wouldst 
He would; 


1. 

2. 
3. 


We would, 
You would, 
.They would 




J 


Ibsolute Form* 






Sing. 




Plural. 


1, 
2. 
3, 


I dare, 
Thou darest, 
He dare; 


1. 

2. 
3. 


We dare, 
You dare, 
They dare* 




Conditional Form. 






Sing* 




Plural. 


1, 

3. 


1 durst, 
Thou durst, 
He durst; 


1. 

2. 
3. 


We durst, 
You durst, 
They durst. 



Ought undergoes no change of termination, on account of per- 
son or number, except in the second person singular, which 
makes Gugktst. Must is of the same form, whatever may be its 
number or person. 

Need, as a defective verb, makes needsi and need (not needs) in 
the second and third persons singular: as, "Thou needst not be 
uneasy;" <; He need not proceed in such haste." — Mr. Munay has 
inserted this latter sentence in his Exercises on False Syntax; 
end in his Key to those Exercises, he corrects the sentence in the 
following manner: viz. "He needs not proceed in such haste." 

Need, as a defective verb, is always followed by a verb in tho 
infinitive mood, without the particle to expressed; and is often 
Bsed in the past tenses: thus, "He need not have acted so indis- 
creetly yesterday;" "He need not have written since yesterday; 1 * 
"He need not have started before the arrival of his brother." — la 
My Exercises, for Parsings 1 shall adduce some authorities. 



ETYMOLOGY. 7T 

Whenever need is used as a regular verb, and it is followed by 
a verb in the infinitive mood, the particle to is invariably express- 
ed; as we may see by the practice of the best writers: as, "The 
memorv of Charles needs not to be loaded with additional infa- 
my."— Lizard. Even Mr. Murray himself affords us an exam- 
ple: "The persons speaking and spoken to," says he, "being at 
the same time the subjects of the discourse, are supposed to be 
present; from which, and other circumstauces, their sex is com- 
monly known, and needs not to be marked by a distinction of gen- 
der in the pronouns," &c. Mr. Kirkham says, "need not be 
marked.'* 

Dare, as a defective verb, makes darest and dare (not dares) in 
the second and third persons singular: as, "Thou darest not tell 
him so;" "He dare not act contrary to his instructions." 

Dare is also a regular verb neuter; and both it and dare, to 
challenge, (which is a regular verb active,) require the particle 
to to be expressed after them; except the simple verb, in the pre- 
sent and imperfect tenses, when it is immediately followed by 
the adverb not, but, or only: as, "You cannot recollect the sub- 
missiveness with which your mind yielded to instructions as from 
an oracle, or the hardihood with which you dared to examine and 
oppose them." — Foster. "What art thou, O son of man! who, 
having sprung but yesterday out of the dust, darest to lift up 
thy voice against thy Maker," &c— Blair, "What would dart 
to molest him who might call, on every side, to thousands en- 
riched by his bounty?" — Dr. Johnson. "I charge thee, there- 
fore, to approach no farther; nor dare to wet the feet of thy sov- 
ereign." — Goldsmith. "No one dared, for some days, to make 
any mention of his name."— Idem. "They would not dare to 
expel him." — Junius. "You have dared to throw more than a 
suspicion," &c. — Sir W. Draper. "I should hope to see the per* 
son who dared to present such a petition," &c. — Junius. — "Who 
dares not be honest, lest he should be poor." — Blair. "From 
those whom he dared not offend, he purchased," &c. — Lingard. 
"The king of England dared only Greep along the borders," &c. 
Idem. "The French ministers darednot acquaint Philip," &c. 
Idem. 

Some further observations on this subject, will be made under 
a rule in Syntax. 

Sometimes, the defective verb dare, as well as should, is used 
to express a very slight assertion, with a modest diffidence: as, 
"I dare say the messenger has returned." "I should think it 
would be proper to give up the point;" that is, "I am rather in- 
clined to think." > 

Shall and will being always of a future signification, have 
been admitted as auxiliaries, in forming a future tense. But may, 
can, must, dare, and need, though they have generally a future 
signification when followed by a verb in the present or general 
infinitive, have not been admitted to the same office, because, 



T8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

when followed by the perfect infinitive, they always refer to past 
time. 

Beicarc is a defective verb, and is used only in the imperative 
and the infinitive moods. Quoth is used only in ludicrous lan- 
guage, and is not varied. Beware is a contraction of be aware. 

Some verbs, from the nature of the subjects to which they re- 
fer, can be used only in the third person singular: as, "It raws; 
it snoios; it freezes; it hails; it lightens; it thunders. These, for 
the sake of distinction, may be properly called impersonal verbs. 
The neuter pronoun it, which is always used before them, does 
not seem to represent any noun, but in connexion with the verb, 
merely to express a state of things. 



OF THE PARTICIPLE. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb partici- 
pating the properties of a verb and an adjective; and is 
generally formed by adding trig, d or ed, to the verb; as 
rule^ ruling, ruled. 

Obs. — Participles, like verbs, express being, action, or passion? 
and may be limited, by other words, to time, place, degree, or 
manner. They do not of themselves, express any particular 
time; but they denote the state of the being, action, or passion, 
in regard to its progress or completion. 

Verbs have three participles: the Imperfect, the Perfect, and the 
Compound: as, Imp. loving, Perf. loved, Comp. having loved. 

The Imperfect* participle is always formed by adding ing to 
the verb; (except when the verb ends in e mute, in which case 
the e is omitted;) and implies a continuance of the being, action, 
or passion; a?, loving, seeing, being. 

£\\q perfect participle isregularly formed by adding d or ed to 
the verb; and implies a completion of the being, action or pas- 
sion: as, loved, seen, been. 

The Compound participle is formed by prefixing having to the 
perfect participle; and implies a previous completion of the be- 
ing, action, or passion: as, havivg loved, having seen, having been. 



* "The most unexceptionable distinction which grammarians 
make between the participles, is that the one points to the con- 
tinuation of the action, passion, or state denoted by the verb; 
and the other to the completion of it. Thus, the present parti- 
ciple signifies imperfect action, or action begun and not ended: 
as, 'I am writing a letter,' The past participle signifies action 
perfected, or finished: as, 'I have written a letter — The letter is 
written.' "—Murray's Grammar, 8vo. p. 65. 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 

Obs. 1. — The participle in mo- has, by many, been called tho 
present participle. But it is as applicable to past or future, as to 
present time; otherwise such expressions as, "I had been writ- 
tug,"— "I shall be writing," would be solecisms. The terms 
perfect and imperfect, as applied to the participles in English, have 
no reference to time. They merely denote the completion, or 
the continuation, of an action, &c.— See Goold Brown s Gram, 

"The participle in ii\g is often used without any implication 
of tense, and therefore may be applied to the past or the future, 
as well as the present. VVhen we say "Yesterday, the public 
attention was excited by an aeronaut ascending;" if the word 
^ascending" were necessarily present, it would contradict the 
expression of past time contained in the verb "was." Gram- 
marians avoid that absurdity, by observing that the act was pre- 
sent at the time expressed by the verb, and therefore may be 
mentioned in the present tense, as the principal verb of the sen- 
tence gives its own tense to all the subordinate words. But this 
statement will not apply, otherwise we might as well use the ex- 
pression, "The public attention was excited by an aeronaut who 
ascends,' ' or "who is ascending" And we might say, "I thought 
that he ascends in a beautiful style." These phrases would bo 
condemned as not only chargeable with bad grammar, but with 
incongruity and absurdity. It is therefore necessary to allow 
that the participle in u ing" is not restricted to any tense." — Aca- 
demician, p. 268. 

This participle is not always active, even when derived from 
an active verb. It is passive in such phrases as the following: 
"The house is building;" "The goods are selling;" &c. Neuter 
and intransitive verbs have their participles in ing; and surely 
these cannot, with any propriety, be termed active participles: ai 
least, the participles of neuter verbs can not. 

A future Participle, 

It is a little surprising that writers on English Grammar, who, 
on some occasions, display an excessive attachment to the Latin 
language, should have failed to introduce a future participle; 
especially as analogy, utility, and even necessity, seem to re- 
quire it. 

Mr. Murray says, "There are other modes of expressing future 
time: as, "I am going to write;" "I am about to write." These 
' have been called the Inceptive future, as they note the com- 
mencement of an action, or an intention to commence an action 
without delay." 

"The substantive verb followed by a verb in the infinitive 
mood, forms another method of indicating future time: as, "Fer- 
dinand is to command the army." "On the subject of style, I 
am afterwards to discourse. ,f "Eneas went in search of the seat 
at an empire, which was, one day, to govern the world." Thg 

i 



80 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

latter expression has been called a future past: that is, past as to 
the narrator; but future as to the event, at the time specified." 
8vo. Gram. p. 75. 

In the Academician, p. 300, we find a different and more sat- 
isfactory view taken of this subject. It is as follows: 

"The future infinitive, both in Latin and in English, is formed 
by circumlocution. In Latin the general infinitive of the substan- 
tive verb is, for this purpose, conjoined with the future parti- 
ciple. In English it is constructed on similar principles. We 
say "to be about to go." 

Yes: and according to Mr. Murray's explanation, here are two 
verbs of the infinitive mood, present tense, making one verb of 
the future tense, — of what mood or mode we are uninformed! 

I will now venture, to make a few remarks, which I trust, will 
be found somewhat useful to the learner. 

1. Whenever such forms as "to write?' or "about to write," 
or li to have written" are immediately preceded in the construc- 
tion, by any part of the verb to be, they ought to be considered 
as future participles. 

2. This diversity of form, as has been observed respecting the 
various imperatives of the Greek language, can produce no cor- 
responding diversity of tejise, unless this should consist in dis- 
criminations between the portions of future time, to which the 
participle refers. Each of these forms has a peculiar and ap- 
propriate application: no two of them should, therefore, be pro- 
miscuously or indiscriminately employed. Thus, if I say, "Hq 
is to write to his brother," Or "lie icas to write to his brother," 
I speak indefinitely, as to the time of the writing; and in the 
latter sentence, it is not intimated that the act of writing, should 
necessarily have been performed, though it might have been, 
previously to the time of my speaking. But when I say, "He 
was to have written,'*' (which is certainly good English,) it is 
signified that he intended to have his writing done at some pe- 
riod prior to the time of my making the assertion. This form 
may, for the sake of distinction, be called definite, or past. Tho 
addition of some other word or words, may also render definite, 
such expressions as t; I am to write/' for example, "I am to write 
to-morroiv, or next week." But I doubt, very much, the proprie- 
ty of saying, "I was to write yesterday," when there is an in* 
timation that I did not write. When it is signified, however, 
that an appointment or an arrangement was made at some par- 
ticular time past, for a person, or persons, to perform some 
action at a time subsequent to that period, and we are merelj 
relating the particulars of such appointment or arrangement, wo 
properly say, "He was to go;" "Ferdinand was to command 
the army; M fyc. It is possible that I am«,sufTiciently intelligible 
on this point. Certain it is, however, that both of these form9 
of expression are grammatical, and that a distinction between 
them ought to be observed. And though I may not have succeed- 
ed in explaining the matter clearly, I derive some satisfaction 



ETYMOLOGY; 81 

from the hope that my remarks may excite a spirit of inquiry on 
this subject. 

In the phrase, "I am about to write" 'about to write' is a 
future participle; and as it notes an intention to commence an 
action without delay, it may be distinguished by the terra "In- 
ceptive future," 

It is not reasonable to object that, if these forms be allowed 
the name of future participles, the forms "going to write,*' "up- 
on the point of writing C* # c * should also be admitted as future 
participles. To this objection I would reply, as Mr. Murray very 
properly did, upon a similar occasion; ''The position is not tena- 
ble that 'Equivalence in sense implies similarity in grammatical 
nature.' It proves too much, and therefore nothing. Thismodo 
of reasoning would confound the acknowledged grammatical 
distinction of words." 

The phrase "I am going to write," is evidently in imitation 
of the French "Je vais ecrire;" and surely a French scholar 
would parse 'vais' and 'ecrire 1 separately. Will any man tell me 
that the combination "am going to write" belongs to the future 
tense of the indicative mood? I think not. Of what mood, then, 
is it a future tense? 

The Academician*, p. 253, says, "The French language hag 
various modes of expressing futurity by combinations of entire 
words into set phrases. The verb devoir, which signifies to be 
obliged from duty, is employed for this purpose, as Je doisfairtt 
cela "I am to do that." The same verb continues in other in- 
stances to retain its original meaning. The verb alter is used 
for a similar purpose; as Je vais lui rendre mes respects-" 

"Our language,'' says the Academician, again, (p. 254,) "like 
every other, has various words and phrases which express futu- 
rity along with something more, as "I intend," "I am obliged," 
"I am likely."!!! 

And is it possible that the learned Editors of the Academician 
should be so far led astray, as to i\sert that "I intend,"*' 4i I am 
obliged, v ' express futurity' \ — As I observed in a preceding part 
of this work, when we say "I intend to write," "I am obliged 
to write," the intention and the obligation aie evidently present; 
but the act of writing is future, — So also, in the sentence "I am 
going to write," "am going " is present, and li to write" is 
future. 

The Editors of the Academician have made a slight mistake 
in translating the phrase "Je doisfaire cela" "lam to do that," 
The literal translation is, "I am obliged to do that," or "I am 
bound to do that." My object in noticing this little inaccuracy, 
is, to show that phrases which are equivalent in sense, or nearly 
so, may sometimes be so employed as to "confound the acknow 
ledged grammatical distinction of words." 

Such phrases as "I have to write;" -'I have to go," &C may 
be satisfactorily explained upon the principle of ellipsis. Thus, 
"I have occasion to write;" "I have an obligation to go;" fee, 
8 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Expressions of this kind may be imitations of the Italian. The^ 
are analogous to the gerund in Latin. 

"In Italian," says the Academician, (p. 253,) "the future 
tense has undoubted marks of a derivation from the verb avert, 
"to have.'' Partiro "I shall depart/' is evidently derived from 
partireho 'I have to depart."' 



EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

(CHAPTER V.) 

In which it is required of the pupil — to distinguish and 
define the different parts of speech*, and the classes and 
modifications of the articles, nouns,adjectives, pronouns t 
verbs, and participles. Thus: 

Piety has the purest delight attending it. 
Piety is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and nominative case. 

Questions by the teacher* 

N. B. — The answers to these, and similar questions, are to bo 
found in the preceding part of Etymology. 

Why is "Piety" a nounl — Why is it a common noun*!— Why 
is it of the third person?— Why, of the singular number? — Why, 
of the neuter gender? — Why, of the nominative case? — How do 
you decline it? 

has is an irregular active-transitive verb, from have, had, had; 
found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, singu- 
lar number.— Here, it is properly an aorist* 

Questions by the teacher* 

Why is "has" a verb? — Why is at an active-transitive verb? 
Why is it irregular?- — Why is it in the indicative mood?— Why, 
in the present tense? — Why, in the third person? — Why, in the 
singular number? — Why an aorist? 

the is the definite article. 

Questions by the teacher* 
What is an article? — Why is "the" styled the definite article? 
jmrest is a common adjective, of the superlative degree. 
Questions. 
Why is "purest" an adjective?— Why is it of the superlative 
degree?— How do you compare it? 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

delight is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and objective case. 

N. B.— The same questions which have been'proposed respect- 
in" the noun piety, except the one before the last, should be re- 
peated here. The last question, but one on this^occasion, is — 
why is it (the noun delight) in the objective case? 

attending is an imperfect participle, from the regular active- 
transitive verb attend, attended, attended. 

Questions. — 'Why is ^ attending'* * a participle? — Why is it 
called an Imperfect participle? — Has the term imperfect, as appli- 
ed to participles, any reference to timet 

it is a personal pronoun, of the third person, singular number, 
neuter gender, and objective case. 

Questions. — Why is Ci it" a pronoun? —Why, a pe%sonal pro- 
noun! — Why, of the third person? — Why of the singular number? 
Why, of the - neuter gender? fyc. 

Lesson i. 

I repent. Thou studiest. He returns. She mourns. It 
seems. We rejoice. You appear. They approach. 

I may go to-morrow. I was slighted yesterday. Thou durst 
not speak. He durst not have written. He left the company. 
She seemed to be afraid. He dare not proceed. We shall be 
beaten. He need not fear. She needed not to be insulted. He 
need not have acted so inconsiderately. 

Lesson ii. 

A few writers have dared to utter bold truths. They persecut- 
ed all who dared to differ/rom them. They did not dare to ven- 
ture into town. Will any man dare to commit himself? They 
have dared to assemble themselves. Clarendon has dared to 
impose on a betrayed and deluded world. No man will dare to 
justify such conduct. Who would dare to censure for cowardice 
the man who shot General Wolfe or General Montgomery, at 
Quebec? 

Lesson hi. 

Whoever wishes to cheat a neighbor of his estate, or to rob a 
country of its rights, need make no scruple of consulting the doc- 
tor himself. — Junius. The people would have too much reason 
to lament their condition, if they did not find some resource in 
the weakness of his understanding. — Idem. If they invaded the 
rights of the people, they did not dare to offer a direct insult to 
their understanding. — Idem. It is not of such corrigible stuff that 
we should hope for any amendment in him, before he has accom- 
plished the destruction of his country. Like other rakes, ho 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

may, perhaps, live to see his error, but not until he has ruined 
his estate.— 'iifem. 

N. B. Any teacher that instructs his pupil to say, that the 
verbs "has accomplished," and "has ruined,'' in the last exam- 
ples, are in the perfect tense, vitiates his taste, confuses his ideas, 
and impairs his reason. For, is it not evident that these verbs 
are as clearly in the second future tense 9 as "shall have accom- 
plished" "shall have ruinedV 

Lesson iv. 

I am to go to town to-morrow. I understood that she was to 
write to her mother. He was to have written to his brother 
on Friday last. She is going to read her lessen. I have to 
prepare myself for supper. We are about to commence our jour- 
ney. 

OF THE ADVERB. 

An Adverb is a word added to a verb, a participle, 
an adjective, or another adverb; and generally express- 
es time, place, degree, or manner; as, They are now 
here, studying very diligently. 

Obs. — Adverbs briefly express what would otherwise require 
several words. 

"Adverbs," says Mr. Murray, "seem originally to have been 
contrived to express compendiously in one word, what must oth- 
erwise have required two or more: as, "He acted wisely/' for, 
he acted with wisdom; "prudently," for, with prudence; "He 
-did it here," for, he did it in this place:" "exceedingly," for, to 
a great degree; "often and seldom," for many, and for few 
times;" "very," for, in an eminent degree, &c. — Phrases which 
do the office of adverbs may properly be termed adverbial phra- 
ses; as, He acted in the best manner possible." Here, the words 
in the best manner possible, as they qualify the verb acted, may 
be called an adverbial phrase." 

"There are many words in the English language," continues 
Mr. Lindley Murray, "that are sometimes used as adjectives, and 
sometimes as adverbs: as "More men than women were there;" 
or, "I am more diligent than he." In the former sentence more 
is evidently an adjective, and in the latter, an adverb. There 
are others that are sometimes used as substantives, and some- 
times as adverbs: as, "To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's: 
here to-day and yesterday are substantives, because they are 
words that make sense of themselves, and admit besides of a 
genitive case: but in the phrase, "He came home yesterday, and 
sets out again to-day," they are adverbs of time; because they 
answer to the question when," The adverb much is used as all 



ETYMOLOGY. &5 

three: as, "Where much is given, much is required;" "Much 
money has been expended;" "It is much better to go than to 
stay." In the first of these sentences, much is a substantive; in 
the second, it is an adjective; and in the third, an adverb. In 
short, nothing but the sense can determine what they are." 

CLASSES. 

Adverbs may be reduced to four general classes; name- 
ly, adverbs of time, of place, of degree, and of manner. 

h Adverbs of time, generally answer to the question 
when? or how often? and may be subdivided as follows: 

1. Of time present; as, Now, yet, to-day. 

2. Of time past; as, Already, yesterday, lately, heretofore, hith- 
erto, long since, long ago, &c. 

3. Of time to come; as, To-morrow, hereafter, henceforth, by- 
and-by, soon, ere long, presently, instantly, immediately. 

N. B.— Now is sometimes an adverb of time to come; as, "I 
will now proceed to examine the other points." 

4. Of time relative; as, When, then, before, after, while or 
whilst, till, until. 

5. Of time absolute; as, Always, ever, never. 

6. Of time repeated; as, Often, oft, again, occasionally, fre- 
quently, sometimes, seldom, rarely, now and then, daily, weekly, 
monthly, yearly, once, twice, thrice, or threetimes, &c. 

7. Of the order of time; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, 
&c. 

II. Adverbs of place generally answer to the question 
where? whither? or whence? and may be subdivided as 
follows: 

1. Of motion or rest in a place; as, Where, here, there, yonder, 
somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, within, without, 
&c. 

2. Of motion to a place; as, Whither, hither, thither, in, out, 
up, down, upwards, downwards, backwards, forwards.— N. B. In 
familiar writing and conversation, where, here, there, are now 
used instead of ichither, hither, thither. 

3. Of motion from a place; as, Whence, hence, thence. 

4. Of the order of place; as, First, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, 
&c. 

HI. Adverbs of degree, or quantity, generally answer 
to the question how much? and may be subdivided as 
follows: 

1. Of excess or abundance; as, Much, too, very, greatly, far, 
ehiefly, entirely, perfectly, extravagantly, intolerably, &c„ 
8* 



8$ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Of equality; as, Enough, sufficiently, equally, &c. 

3. Of deficiency or abatement; as, Little, scarcely, merely, bare* 
ly, &c. 

IV, Adverbs of manner, generally answer to th^ 
question how? and may be subdivided as follows; 

1. Of quality; as, Well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, quickly, 
and many others formed by adding ly to adjectives of quality. 

2. Of affirmation; as, Yes, yea, verily, truly, indeed, surely, &c. 

3. Of negation; as, No, nay, not, nowise. 

4. Of doubt; as, Perhaps, haply, possibly, &c. 

5. Of mode; as, Thus, so, somehow, like, else, otherwise, &c. 

6. Of cause; as, Why, wherefore, therefore, whence, hence. 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs of time, place, and manner, are generally 
connected with verbs or participles; those of degree are more fre- 
quently prefixed to adjectives or adverbs. 

Obs. 2.— The adverbs here, there, and where, when prefixed 
to prepositions, have the force of pronouns: as, Hereby, for by 
this, thereby, for by that, whereby, for by which. Compounds of 
this kind are, however, commonly reckoned adverbs. They are 
not now so much used as they were formerly. The poets still 
retain them. 

Obs. 3. — The adverbs how, when, whence, whither, where, why, 
and their compounds, are frequently used as inter rogatives; but 
as such, they severally belong to the classes under which they 
are placed. 

Obs. 4. — Needs is sometimes an adverb; as, "He must needs 
do it." 

Adverbs sometimes perform the office of conjunctions, and 
serve to connect sentences, as well as to express some circum- 
stance of time, place, degree, or manner: adverbs that are so 
used, are called conjunctive adverbs, or adverbial conjunctions. 

Obs. 1. — Conjunctive adverbs often relate equally to two verbs 
in different clauses; on which account it is the more necessary 
to distinguish them; as, "They feared when they heard that they 
were Romans." 

Obs. 2. — The following words are the most frequently used 
as conjunctive adverbs: again, also, as, before, besides, else, even, 
hence, however, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, since, so, then, 
thence, therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while, or 
whilst. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

Adverbs have no modifications, except that a few are 
compared after the manner of adjectives; as, Soon, soon- 
er, soonest — often, oftener, oftenest — long, longer, longest \ 

The following are irregularly compared; well, better^ 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

best; badly or ill, rvorse, worst; little, less, least; much, 
more, most; far, farther , farthest; forth, further, furth- 
est. 

Obs. I. — Most adverbs of quality will admit the comparative 
adverbs more and most, tess and least, before them: as, wisely, 
more wisely, most wisely; culpably, less culpably, least culpably. 
But these should be parsed separately; the degree of comparisoa 
belongs only to the adverb prefixed. 

Obs. 2. — "Expressions like these, none at all, a great deal, a 
few days ago, long since, at length, in vain, when they are used 
to denote the manner or time of the action of verbs or partici- 
ples, are generally called adverbial phrases."— Kirkham's Gram, 
p. 85. 

Obs. 3. — So also, in the phrase, "A wall three feet thick," 
the words "three feet" constitute an adverbial phrase, qualifying 
the adjective "thick." — How thick? Very thick — three feet thick. 
"A child eight years old." Here, the words "eight years" form 
an adverbial phrase. 



OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
sentences in construction, and to show the dependence 
of the terms so connected; as, Thou and he are happy, 
because you are good. 

CLASSES. 

Conjunctions are divided into two classes; copulative 
and disjunctive. 

A copulative conjunction is a conjunction that de- 
notes an addition, a cause, or a supposition: as, He and 
I shall not dispute; for, if he has any choice, I shall 
readily grant it. 

A disjunctive conjunction is a conjunction that de- 
notes opposition of meaning: as, "Be not overcome by 
evil, but overcome evil with good." 

The following are the principal conjunctions: 

1. Copulative; and, if, as, both, because, for, that. 

2. Disjunctive; or, nor, neither, either, than, though, although, 
y&t, but, whether, lest, unless, notwithstanding. 

As soon as, and as well as, are conjunctive phrases, or com- 
pound conjunctions. Save is sometimes, according to our gram- 
marians, employed as a conjunction. 



Of 


into 


above 


at 


to 


within 


below 


near 


for 


without 


between 


up 


by 


over 


beneath 


down 


with 


under 


from 


before 


in 


through 


beyond 


behind 


but 


besides 


around 


across 



S3 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a word used to express some rela- 
tion of different things to each other, and is generally 
placed before a noun or a pronoun: as, The paper lie* 
before me on the desk. 

The following is a list of the principal prepositions: 

off 

on or upon 

among 

after 

about 

against 

notwithstanding. 

Obs. — "Every relation of course implies more than one object. 
In correct language, the grammatical relation of the words cor- 
responds to the relation of the things or ideas expressed. To a 
preposition, the antecedent term of relation may be a noun, an 
adjective, a pronoun, a verb, a participle, or an adverb, and the 
subsequent term may be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive verb, or 
a participle. The learner must observe that the terms of rela- 
tion are frequently transposed."— GooZd Brown. 

Out-of instead-of and, perhaps, some other combinations of 
this sort, may be called compound prepositions; but, properly 
speaking, these forms ought to be written and considered sepa- 
rately: thus, instead ought to be written in stead; and hero 
"stead" is a substantive. 

"The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction 
and as an adverb; and sometimes as a preposition. 'I rest then 
upon this argument;' then is here a conjunction: in the following 
phrase it is an adverb: 'He arrived then f and not before.' 'I sub- 
mitted; for it was vain to resist:' in this sentence, for is a con- 
junction; in the next, it is a preposition: 'He contended for vic- 
tory only.' In the first of the following sentence, since is a 
conjunction: in the second it is a preposition; and in the third, 
an adverb: ' Since we must part, let us do it peaceably:' 'I have 
not seen him since that time:' 'Our friendship commenced long 
inc$." 

Obs. —After all this, it seems rather strange that Mr. Murray 
should insist that the word but is always a conjunction. Res- 
pecting the sentences, '"I saw nobody but him;" "No person but 
he was present;" he says, "these sentences may be explained, 
on the principle of supplying the ellipsis, in the following man 
ner. In the first, we might say, "I saw nobody, but I saw him;*' 
or, "I saw nobody, but him I saw;" in the second, 'None wa* 
present; but he was present" &c- — The supply of the ellipsis 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

(adds Mr. Murray) certainly gives an uncouth appearance to 
these sentences:' ' &c. He might have said that it makes them 
perfectly contradictory in terms. 

He tells us that the 18th Rule of Syntax may be considered 
as subsidiary to the rule which he has given on this subject, and 
to the principle of supplying the ellipsis. "Thus, in the expres- 
»ion, "I saw nobody but him," nobody is in the objective case, 
governed by the verb saw; and him is in the same case, because 
conjunctions, according to Rule the 18th, connect the same cases 
of nouns and pronouns.' ' These remarks are incorrect; for, were 
they otherwise, it would be proper to say, "Nothing but vain and 
foolish pursuits delight some persons;" because, agreeably to 
Note 2nd under Rule 3rd of Mr. Murray's Syntax, "When a dis- 
junctive occurs between a singular noun, or pronoun, and a plural 
one, the verb is made to agree with the plural noun or pronoun." 
But Mr. Murray himself very properly corrects this sentence, by 
Bubstituting the singular verb "delights" instead of the plural 
verb "delight." Why so? Because the plural noun "pursuits" 
is in the objective case, governed by the preposition but; and the 
singular noun "nothing" is the true nominative case to the verb. 

Whenever the word but signifies except, it is a preposition: 
whenever it is used instead of only, it is an adverb: in all other 
situations, it is a conjunction. Thus, in the sentence, "There 
were but few men in the room," "but" is an adverb. "Nobody 
but he was present," is incorrect language; for, in this sentence, 
"but" is a preposition, signifying except; and therefore, the pro- 
noun should be in the objective case; thus, "Nobody but [except] 
him was present." 

OF THE INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is a word that is uttered merely to 
indicate some strong or sudden emotion of the mind: 
as, Oh! alas! 

Obs. — Of pure interjections but few are admitted into books. 
As words, or sounds, of this kind, serve rather to indicate feel- 
ing, than to express thought, they seldom have any definable 
signification. Their use also is so variable, that there can be no 
very accurate classification of them. Some significant words 
properly belonging to other classes, are ranked with interjec- 
tions, when uttered with emotion and in an unconnected manner. 
The principal interjections are O! Oh! ah! alas! hail ! all hail! 
hi hehold! 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

Lesson i. 
If change of circumstances were to have no weight in direct- 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing our conduct and opinions, the mutual intercourse of mankind 
would be nothing more than a contention between positive and 
equitable rights. — Junius. 

It is a sign of great prudence, to be willing to receive instruc- 
tion; the most intelligent persons sometimes stand in need of. 

Good nature in a companion, is more agreeable than wit; and 
gives a certain air to the countenance, which is more amiable 
than beauty. 

Men of the noblest dispositions think themselves happiest, when 
others share with them in their happiness. 

Then near approaching, 'Father, hail!' he cried; 
And, 'Hail, my son'.' the reverend sire replied* — Parn. 

Lesson ii. 

When we act according to our duty, we commit the event to 
him by whose laws our actions are governed, and who will suffer 
none to be finally punished for obedience. 

When, in prospect of some good, whether natural or moral, 
we break the rules prescribed to us, we withdraw from the di- 
rection of superior wisdom, and take all consequences upon 
ourselves. 

Man cannot so far know the connexion of causes and events^ 
m that he may venture to do wrong in order to do right. 

Ah! that deceit should steal such gentle shapes, 
And with a virtuous visor hide deep vice! — Shah. 

Lesson hi. 

How comfortless is the sorrow of him who feels at once the 
pangs of guilt and the vexation of calamity, which guilt has 
brought upon him! 

He who will determine against that which he knows, because 
there may be something which he knows not, is not to be ad- 
mitted among reasonable beings. 

Pride is seldom delicate, it will please itself with very mean 
advantages; and envy feels not its own happiness, but when te 
may be compared with the misery of others. 

O happy peasant! Oh unhappy bard! 

His the mere tinsel, hers the rich reward.— Cowper* 

Nothing is proof against the general curse 

Of vanity, that seizes all below. 

The only amaranthine flower on earth 

Is virtue; the only lasting treasure, truth. — Id. 

OF DERIVATION. 

Words are derived from one another in various 
ways, viz. 



ETYMOLOGY. 91 

1. Substantives arc derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjeetives 3 and some- 
times from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from substantives. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PART III. 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
and arrangement, of words in a sentence. 

The relation of words, is their dependence according 
to the sense. 

The agreement of words, is their similarity in per- 
son, number, gender, ease, mood, tense, or form. 

The government of words, is that power which one 
word has over another, in directing its mood, tense, or 
case. 

The arrangement of words, is their collocation in a 
sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, making com- 
plete sense. 

The principal parts of a sentence, are the subject, 
or nominative — the verb— and, (if the verb be transi- 
tive,) the object governed by the verb, The other 
parts depend upon these, either as primary or as se- 
condary adjuncts. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple 9 &11A compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject aijid on© 
finite verb: as, "Life is short;" "Man is not immortal." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple 
sentences connected together: as, "Life is short, and 
art is long." "Idleness produces want, vice, and mis- 
ery.'' 

A clause is a subdivision of a compound sentence. 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, 
making sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a 
whole sentence. 

Words that are omitted by ellipsis, and that are ne- 
cessarily understood, in order to complete the construc- 
tion, must be supplied in parsing. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of 
words in a sentence, the following rules and observa- 
tions should be carefully studied. 



SYNTAX. 93 

;itULE I. 

Articles relate to the nouns which they limit: as, "At 
a little distance from the ruins of the abbey, stands an 
aged elm." 

Obs. 1. — Articles often relate to nouns understood; as, "The 
[river] Thames' ' — "Pliny the younger" [man] — "The honora- 
ble [body,] the Legislature" — "The animal [world] and the ve- 
getable world" — "Neither to the right [hand] nor to the left" 
[hand] — "He was a good man, and a just" [man]. — "The pride 
of swains Palemon was, the generous [man], and the rich" 
[man.] 

Obs. 2. — It is not always necessary to repeat the article before 
several nouns in the same construction; the same article serves 
sometimes to limit the signification of more than one noun. In 
general, it may be sufficient to prefix the article to the former of 
two words in the same construction: as, "There were many 
hours, both of the night and day, which he could spend, without 
suspicion, in solitary thought." It might have been "of the 
night and of the day." And, for the sake of em*phasis, we often 
repeat the article in a series of epithets: as, "He hoped that this 
title would secure him an ample and an independent authority. M 
When a different form of the article.requisite, the article is also 
properly repeated: as, "A house and an orchard/' instead of "a 
house and orchard." 

Obs. 3. — The article precedes its noun, and is never, by itself, 
placed after it. 

Obs. 4. — When an adjective precedes the noun, the article is 
placed before the adjective; as, 

' "The private path, the secret acts of men, 
If noble, far the noblest of their lives." 

Except the adjectives all, such, many, ichat, and those which are 
preceded by the adverbs too, so, as, or how; as, "All the ma- 
terials were bought at too dear a rate.'' 

Obs. 5. — The definite article and an adjective are sometimes 
placed after the noun to which they both relate; as, "Section 
the fourth" — "Henry the Eighth." The latter example is per- 
haps elliptical. 

Obs. 6. — The definite article is often prefixed to comparatives 
and superlatives; and its effect is, to mark the degree the more 
strongly, and to define it the more precisely: as, "The oftener I 
see him, the more I respect him." — "A constitution the most fit/' 
"A claim the strongest and the most easily comprehended. '' — 
"The men the most difficult to be replaced." In these cases, 
the article seems to relate only to the adjective or adverb fol- 
lowing it; but in the case of the adjective, the noun maybe 
supplied. 

9 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Op.:, T. — The article th ?d to nouns of both numbers; 

as, 1*4 m the num. — / lit g ;e good boys. 

0.--< r\- is sometimes elegantly used in stead 

ml i possessive pronoun, as, "Men who hire no: bowed tie knee 
— ;-;.'••:. v. 4. 
Oss. ^.— .4 or .:•. H of the singular number 

>. ".I christian, m infidel, a 
score. .: thousand." 

Obs .:*: is sometimes pre." n of 

numb \ days — a 

- leep. In these eases, ike Ml i the 

S ouie grtmni I h I s e w ords of number nouns, 

- - of the prepos ..ix! others 

action in 

Obs. 11. — The indefinite article a or oh is sometimes placed 
betwc .r:?., and I 

" FuH many a gem of purest ray serene, 

Yd ea>os i 
•Full many a Jio: en, 

And s on the desert air. v 

1 569 many a feat, and many a rlow'r, re- 

Lively 

Obs, 10. — .4 or m has sometimes the import o f each or ettry: 

as, "He came twice I year." The irticle in this sense, with a 
prepc- is preferable to the mercantile/: 

s [for] ■ bushel," — not, "per 

Obs, lo. — A tod to particip'es in mjr, or used in com- 

on. is a preposition ,:iifv- 

. at, on, . : <: laughing.' 7 — A/. 

Eagtwortk* "He is gone i until g ;.' "-— 

::imes in a manner 
pecu - s 1\ tn's ■ 

Obs* l-L — An was :Vin*» 

: mouthe. is well as thou "" — 

ri i. — When nouns n a 

and cemmo: the article must be 
repea 

never considered the . of her i — The 
before merit, 

Non u, — When and the qualities 

- lame, 

i. e. "A Hack f.orsc, and a white hors< 



SYNTAX. 95 

Note hi. — When adjectives are connected, and the qualities 
belong to the same thing or things, the article should not be re- 
peated; as, "A black and white horse." Here, only one horse 
is 9poken of. 

Note it. — The article should not be U3ed before the narnei 
of virtues, vices, passions, arts or sciences; before simple proper 
names, or before any noun whose signification is sufficiently de- 
finite without it; as, "Falsehood Is odiou3." — "Iron 13 a useful 
mineral," 

Notk v. — When titles are mentioned merely as titles, the ar- 
ticle should not be used; a3 "He is styled Marovij." 

Note m. — In expressing a comparison, if both noun3 refer to 
the same subject, the article should not be inserted; if to different 
subjects, it should not be omitted: thus, if we say, "He is a bet- 
ter teacher than poet," we compare different qualifications of 
the same man; but if we say, "He is a better teacher than a po- 
et," we refer to different men. 

RULE II. 

A noun or a Pronoun which is the subject of a verb, 
must Be in the nominative case: as, 

C, I know thou sayst it: says thy life the samel" 

Obs. 1. — Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and 
when an address i3 made to a person, should belong to some 
verb, either expressed or implied: as, "Who wrote this book?" 
-"James;" that if "Jame3 wrote it." "To whom tbfU Adam, 
that is, "spoke." Nominatives put in apposition, form another 
exception to this rule. In the following sentence, the noun 
xt Virtue** has do verb, either expressed or understood, to agree 
with it, nor any word to govern it: "Virtue, however it may be 
neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to ac- 
knowledge and respect genuine merit. v The sentence is there- 
fore inaccurate. It should be arranged in this manner: "How- 
ever (or l How much soecer y ) virtue may be neglected for a 
time," &c. 

Obs. 2. — the subject or nominative, is generally placedjbefore 
the verb; as "Peace dawned upon his mind." "What is writ- 
ten.?" 

Obs. 3u — Cut, in the following cases, the subject is placed after 
tha verb, or after the first auxiliary: 

L When a question is asked, without an interrogative pronoun 
in the nominative case; as, "Shall mortals be implacable?" — 
"What art thou doing?"— Hooke. 

2. When the verb is in the imperative mood; as, "Go thou." 

3. When an earnest wish, or other strong feeling is expressed; 
as "May she bs happy!" — "How were we struck!" — Young. 



9S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

4. When a supposition is made without a conjunction; as, 
"Were it true it would not injure us." 

5. When neither or nor, signifying and not, precedes the verb; 
as, "This was his fear; nor was his apprehension groundless/ ' 

6. When, for the sake of emphasis, some word or words are 
placed before the verb, which more naturally come after it; as, 
"Here am J." — "Narrow is the way." — "Silver and gold have L 
none," &c. 

7. When the verb has no regimen, and is itself emphatical; as, 
"Echo the mountains round." — Thompson, 

8. When the verbs say, think, reply, and the like, introduce 
the parts of a dialogue; as, '"Son of affliction, ' said Omar, l who 
art thou?' 'My name, 1 replied the stranger, *is Hassan.' "— 
Johnson. 

9. When the adverb there precedes the verb; as, "There live d 
a man" 

RULE III. 

A Noun or a personal Pronoun, used to explain a 
preceding noun or pronoun, is put, by apposition, in the 
same case; as, 

"But he, our gracious Master, kind as just, 
Knowing our frame, remembers we are dust. " 

Obs. 1. — Apposition is the using of different words or appel- 
lations, to designate the same thing. Apposition also denotes 
the relation which exists between the words which are so em- 
ployed. In parsing, this rule should be applied only to the ex- 
planatory term. The case of the ^principal term depends on its 
relation to the rest of the sentence, and comes under some other 
rule. 

Obs. 2. — The explanatory word is sometimes placed first, es- 
pecially among the poets; ae, 

"From brightening fields of ether fair disclosed, 

Child of the sun, refulgent Summer comes.' ' — Thompson, 

Obs. 3. — The pronouns of the first and second persons, are 
sometimes prefixed to nouns merely to distinguish their person. 
In this case of apposition, the words are not separated by a 
comma; as, "I John saw these things/' — Bible. "His praise t 
ye brooks, attune." — Thompson. 

Obs. 4. — When two or more nouns, &c. of the possessive case 
are put in apposition, the possessive termination added to one de- 
notes the case of both or all; as, "His brother Philips wife" — 
u John the Baptist's head."— Bible. "At my friend Johnson's, 
the bookseller." By a repetition of the possessive sign, a distinct 
governing noun is implied, and the apposition is destroyed. 



SYNTAX. 97 

Obs. 5. — When a noun or a pronoun is repeated for the sake 
of emphasis, the word which is repeated may properly be said 
to be in apposition with that which is first introduced; as, "They 
have forsaken me, the Fountain of living waters, and hewed 
them out cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water." — 
Jer. ii. 13. 

Obs. 6.— A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sen- 
tence; as, "He permitted me to consult his library — a kindness 
which 1 shall not forget." — Allen. 

Obs. 7. — A distributive term, in the singular number, is some- 
times construed in apposition with a comprehensive plural,* as, 
"They reap vanity every one with his neighbour."— Bible. 

Obs. 8. — The common and the proper name of an object are 
often associated, and put in apposition; as, The river Thames—* 
The ship Albion — the poet Cowper — Lake Erie — Cape May- 
Mount Atlas. But the proper name of a place, when accompa- 
nied by the common name, is generally put in the objective case, 
and preceded by the preposition of; as, The city o/'New York — 
The land of Canaan. 

RULE IV. 

Every adjective relates to a noun, expressed or un- 
derstood: as, "He is a good, as well as a wise man;" 
"Few are happy;" that is, "persons;" li This\s a pleasant 
walk," that is, "This walk is a pleasant walk," 

Obs.1. — Adjectives often relate to nouns understood; as, 'The 
nine' [muses']. — 'Philip was one of the seven' [deacons']. — 'He 
eame unto his own [possessions], and his own [men] received 
him not*' 

Obs. 2. — Adjectives preceded by the definite article, are often 
used, by ellipsis, as nouns. They designate those classes of ob- 
jects which aro characterized by the qualities they express. They 
are most commonly used in reference to nouns of the plural num- 
ber; and these nouns, which are understood, should be supplied 
in parsing; as, "The careless [persons] and the imprudent, the 
giddy and the fickle, the ungrateful and the interested, every 
where meet us.'' — Blair. 

Obs. 3. — Adjectives often relate immediately to pronouns, and ? 
through them, to the nouns they represent; as, "i am weary; 1 ' 
" you are inconsiderate." 

Obs. 4. — An adjective sometimes relates to a phrase or a sen- 
tence which is substituted for a noun; as, "That he should refuse, 
is not strange." — "To insult the afflicted is impious." — Dillwyn. 

Obs. 5. — After an infinitive, an a-djective is sometimes taken 
abstractly; as, "To be truly wise, is a high attainment." But, 
in such examples, an objective going before may be supplied; as, 
"For a man to be truly wise, is a high attainment." 
9* 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 6. — The adjective is generally placed immediately before 
its noun; as, "Vain man, is grandeur given to gay attire?*' — 
Beattie, 

Obs. 7. — But, in the following instances, the adjective is plac- 
ed after the word to which it relates: 

1. When other words depend on the adjective; as, "A mind 
conscious of right" — "A wall three feet thick. 

2. When the quality results from the action of a verb; as, 
"Virtue renders life happy." 

3. When the adjective would thus be more clearly distinctive; 
as, "Goodness infinite" — "Wisdom unsearchable." 

4. When a verb comes between the adjective and the noun 
or pronoun; as, "I grew uneasy at her presence." — Addison. 
"Truth stands independent of all external things." — Burgh. 

Obs. 8. — In some cases, the adjective may either precede or 
follow the noun: as, 

1. In poetry; as, "Wilt thou to the isles 

Atlantic, to the rich Hesperian clime, 
Fly in the train of Autumn?" — Akensidc. 

2. In some technical expressions; as, "A notary public," or 
"A public notary." 

3. When an adverb precedes the adjective; as, "A Being infi- 
nitely wise," or, "An infinitely wise Being." 

4. When several adjectives belong to the same noun; as, "A 
woman, modest, sensible, and virtuous," or, "A modest, sensi- 
ble, and virtuous woman." 

Obs. 9. — An emphatic adjective may be placed first in the 
lentence, though it belong after the verb; as, "Weighty is the 
anger of the righteous." — Bible. 

Obs. 10. —By an ellipsis of the noun, an adjective with a pre- 
position before it, is sometimes equivalent to an adverb; or, rath- 
er, both the preposition and the adjective are equivalent to an 
adverb; as, "In particular;" that is, in a particular manner; 
equivalent to "particularly." In parsing, supply the ellipsis. 

Note I. — Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, must agree 
with their nouns in number; as, That sort, those sorts. 

Note II. — When the adjective is necessarily plural, the ^nouti 
should be made so too; as, "Twenty pounds," not "Twenty 
pound." 

Obs. 1. — In some peculiar phrases, this rule appears to be dis- 
regarded; as, "Two hundred pennyworth of bread, is not suffi- 
cient." — "Twenty sail of vessels." — "A hundred head of cattle." 

Obs. 2. — In the phrase "A five dollar note," the two words 
%i five" and "dollar" form a compound adjective; so also, in the 
phrases, "a six foot wall," "a two foot rule," and the like. 



SYNTAX. 99 

Obs. 3. — To denote a collective number, a singular adjective 
may precede a plural one; as, "One hundred men*' — Every six 
weeks." 

Note I. — -Double comparatives and superlatives should bo 
avoided: such as, "A worser conduct;'* "On lesser hopes;" "A 
more screner temper;" "The most straitest sect;" "A more su- 
perior work." They should be "worse conduct;" "less hopes;'' 
"a more serene temper;" "the straitest sect;" "a superior work." 

Note II. — Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative 
signification, do not properly admit of the superlative or com- 
parative form superadded: such as, "Chief, extreme, perfect, right, 
universal, supreme,'"* &c; which are sometimes improperly writ- 
ten "Chief est, extremest, perfectest or most perfect, rightest, most 
universal, most supreme," &c. The phrases, l so perfect,* 'so 
right,* c so extreme,* 'so universal,* &c. are incorrect; because they 
imply that one thing is le ;s perfect, less extreme, &c. than anoth- 
er, which is not possible. And, for the same reason, the phra- 
ses, ''very right,* 'too perfect,' and the like, are improper; as in 
the following sentence: ''Maxims too perfect for human nature, 
are here laid down." It should be, "too excellent.** 

Note III. — The comparative degree should be "used only in 
reference to two objects, or classes of objects; the superlajve 
compares one or more things with all others of the same class, 
whether few or many: as, "Edward is taller than James; he is 
the largest of my scholars." 

Note IV. — When the comparative degree is employed, tho 
latter term of comparison should never include the former; as, 
"Iron is more useful than all the mctals. yf It should be, "than 
all the other metals.** 

Note V. — When the superlative degree is employed, the latter 
term of comparison should never exclude the former; as, "A 
fondness for show, is, of all other follies, the most vain." Tho 
word other should be expunged. 

Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the degrees 
of comparison are applied and construed. The following arc 
examples of wrong construction in this respect: "This noble na- 
tion hath, of all others, admitted fewer corruptions." It should 
be, "This noble nation hath, of all nations, admitted the fewest 
corruptions;" or, "This noble nation hath (or has) admitted 
fewer corruptions than any other*** We commonly say, "This 
is the weaker of the two;" or Ji the loeakest of the two:" but the 
former is the regular mode of expression, because there are only 
two things compared. "The vice of covetousness is what en- 
ters deepest into the soul of any other." It should be, "Tho 
vice of covetousness enters more deeply into the soul, than any 
other vice;** or, "Of all vices, the vice of covetousness enters 
ike most deeply into the soul." — "He celebrates the church of 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

England as the most perfect of all others.'' It should be, "He 
celebrates the church of England as the most excellent of all 
cliurches;" or, "He celebrates the church of England as more ex- 
cellent, or less imperfect, than any other." The phrases more per- 
fect and most perfect, are improper; because perfection admits of 
no degrees of comparison. We may say nearer or nearest to 
perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

Note VI. — When adjectives are connected by conjunctions, 
the shortest and simplest should be placed first; as, "He is older 
and more respectable than his brother." 

Note VII. — An adjective and its noun may be taken as a com- 
pound term, to which other adjectives may be prefixed. The 
most distinguishing quality should be expressed next to the noun; 
as, "A fine young man," — not "A young fine man." 

Note VIII. — In prose, the use of adjectives for adverbs, is 
improper: as, "He writes elegant" — say, "elegantly ." 

Obs. 1. — In poetry, an adjective relating to the noun, is some- 
times elegantly used instead of an adverb qualifying the verb or 
participle; as, "To thee I bend the knee; to thee my thoughts 
Continual climb.'' — Thomson, 

Obs. 2. — In order to determine, in difficult cases, whether an 
adjective or an adverb is required, the learner should carefully 
attend to the definitions of these parts of speech, and consider 
whether, in the case in question, quality or manner is to be ex- 
pressed: if the former, an adjective is proper; if the latter, an 
adverb. The following examples will illustrate this point: "She 
looks cold; — she looks coldly on him."— "I sat silent; — I sat si* 
lently musing." — Stand Jinn; — maintain your cause firmly." 

Note IX. — The pronoun them should never be used as an ad- 
jective in lieu of those: say, "I bought those books," — not "them 
books." 

Obs. — Those, instead of they, at the beginning of a sentence 
or where there is no particular reference to an antecedent, is in- 
accurate, as "Those that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy.'' 
It should be, "They that, or they who sow in tears." Were we 
to speak of only one person, we should certainly use a personal 
pronoun^ instead of employing the pronominal adjective that; 
which is considered the singular of those. Thus, instead of 
saying, "That who sows in tears, sometimes reaps in joy;" we 
should say, "He who (or he that) sows in tears,'' &c. 

Note X. — When the pronominal adjectives this and that, or 
these and those, are contrasted, this or these should represent the 
latter of the antecedent terms, and that or those, the former: as, 

"And, reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 

In this, 'tis God directs; in that, 'tis man." — Pope. 

"Farewell my friendsl farewell my foes! 

My peace with these, my love with those I 11 ---Burns, 



SYNTAX. 101 

Note XI. — The'nouns means and amends, and some others, 
have the same form in both numbers: they are therefore some- 
times used with an adjective of the singular, sometimes, with one 
of the plural number,, as the sense requires; as, "He lived tem- 
perately, and by this means preserved his health;" "The scho- 
lars were attentive, industrious, and obedient to their tutors; and 
by these means acquired knowledge." — "He gained the approba- 
tion of his country; and with this amends he was content,' ' "In 
return, he received the thanks of his employers, and the present 
of a large estate: these were ample amends for all his labors." — 
The word news does not admit of being used with an adjective 
of the plural number. We say, "This news" not "these news" 

Note XII. — The pronominal adjectives each, every, either, and 
neither, always belong to nouns of the third person singular; and, 
when they are the leading words in their clauses, they require 
verbs and pronouns, to agree with those nouns accordingly: as, 
"Each of you is entitled to his share." 

Obs. — Either and neither relate to two things only: when more 
are referred to, any and none should be employed; as, "Any of 
the three," — not, "Either of the three." — "None of the four," 
not, "Neither of the four." 

RULE V. 

A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or [the 
noun or pronoun which it represents, in gender, num- 
ber, and person; as, "This is the friend whom I love; 
he has just arrived." "This is the book which 1 bought; 
it is an excellent work."' — "Ye, therefore, who love 
mercy, teach your sons to love it too." 

Obs. I — The pronoun we is used by the speaker to represent 
himself and others, and is therefore plural. But it is sometimes 
used, by a sort of fiction, in stead of the singular, to intimate 
that the speaker is not alone in his opinions. JVIonarchs some- 
times join it to a singular noun; as, "We Alexander, Autocrat of 
all the Russias." They also employ the compound ourself. 

Obs. 2.— When a pronoun represents the name of an inani- 
mate object personified, it agrees with its antecedent in the figu- 
rative, and not in the literal sense; [See the figure Syllipscs:} 
as, 

"Grim Darkness furls his leaden shroud."— Jto gers. 

Obs. 3. — When the antecedent is applied metaphorically, the 
pronoun agrees with it in its literal, and not in its figurative sense; 
as, "Pitt was the pillar which upheld the state,"— "The mon« 
arch of mountains rears his snowy head," 



103 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 4.-- -When the antecedent is put by metonymy for a noun 
of different properties, the pronoun sometimes agrees with it in 
the figurative, and sometimes in the literal sense; as, 

"The wolf who [that] from the nightly fold, 
Fierce drags the bleating prey, ne'er drunk her milk, 
Nor wore her warming fleece." — Thomson. 

"That each may fill the circle mark'd by Heaven, 
Who sees with equal eye, as God of all, 
A hero perish or a sparrow fall." — Pope, 

'•And heaven beholds its image in his breast."— Idem. 

Obs. 4.— iWhen the antecedent is put by Sijnecdoche for more 
or less than it literally signifies, the pronoun agrees with it in the 
figurative, and not in the literal sense; as, 

"A dauntless soul erect, who smiled on death."— Thomson. 

"But to the generous still improving mind, 
That gives the hopeless heart to sing for joy, 
To him the long review of ordered life 
Is inward rapture only to be felt."— Idem. 

Obs. 5.— Pronouns usually follow the nouns which they rep- 
resent,- but this order is sometimes reversed: as, "Whom the cap 
fits, let him put it on."— -"Hark! they whisper; angels say," &c. 
u £•-— VVllen a pronoun follows two words, having a neu- 
ter verb between them, and both referring to the same person, or 
ttag, it may represent either of them, but not with the same 
meaning; as, 1. "I am the man who command:" here, the rela- 
tive who is made to agree with the pronoun I; and the meaning 
is, "I who command, am the man." (The latter expression pla- 
ces the relative nearer to its antecedent, and is therefore prefera- 
ble.) 2. "I am the man who commands:" here, the relative 
who belongs to the predicate man, and the meaning is, "I am 
the commander." 

Obs. 7.— -After the expletive it, which may be employed to 
introduce a noun or a pronoun of any person, number, or gender, 
tne above mentioned distinction is generally disregarded; and the 
relative is made to agree with the latter word: as, "It is not I 
that do it." The propriety of this construction is questionable. 

Ubs. 8.— The pronoun it is often used without a definite re- 
ference to any antecedent; as, "Whether she grapple it with the 
pride of plnlosophy."~C7mZmer.9. And still more frequently it 
reters to something mentioned in the subsequent part of the sen- 
tence. This pronoun is a necessary expletive at the commence- 
ment of a sentence in which the verb is followed by a clause 
v!/' ^ y . a trans position, may be made the subject of the verb; 
as, l It is impossible to please every one>'> — "It was requisite that 
me papers should be senV } 



SYNTAX. 103 

Obs. 9.— In familiar language, the relative in the objective 
case, is frequently understood; as, "Here is the letter [which] I 
received." The omission of the relative in the nominative case, 
is inelegant; as, "This is the worst thing [that] could happen/' 
The latter ellipsis sometimes occurs in poetry; as, 

"In this, 'tis God — directs; in that, 'tis man." — Pope, 
Obs. 10. The antecedent is sometimes suppressed, especial- 
ly in poetry; as, "How shall I curse [him] whom God hath not 
cursed." 

[He] "Who lives to nature, rarely can be poor; 
[He] Who lives to fancy, never can be rich." 

Obs. 11. — What is sometimes used adverbially; as, "Though 
I forbear, what am I eased?" "The enemy having his country 
wasted, what by himself, and what by the soldiers, findeth suc- 
cour in no place." — Spenser, Here, what means partly. 

Obs. 12. — What is sometimes used as a mere interjection; as, 
"What! art thou the Thraciaj robber," #c. 

"What! can you lull the winged winds^asleep?" — Campbell. 

Note i. — A pronoun should not to be introduced In connexion 
with words that belong more properly to the antecedent, or to 
another pronoun; as, "My banks they are furnished with bees." 

Note ii.— A change of number, in the second person, is im- 
proper; as, "You wept, and I for thee." It should be, "for 
you." 

Note in.— When a pronoun, or a pronominal adjective, will 
not express the meaning clearly, the noun must be repeated. In 
the following sentence, the meaning is not clearly expressed: 
"We see the beautiful variety of colour in the rainbow, and are 
led to consider the cause of ii" [that variety.] 

RULE VI. 

When no nominative conies between the relative and 
the verb that follows it, the relative is the nominative to 
the verb; as, "Thou who knowest all things." 

Obs. — When both the antecedent and the relative are nomina- 
tives, the relative is the nominative to the former verb, and the 
antecedent to the latter; as, "He that is not virtuous, is not truly 
wise." — To this rule there are occasional exceptions; as, "They 
only lived who fled.''— Milton. 

RULE VII. 

When there is a nominative between the relative 
and the verb, the relative is governed by some word in 
its own clause of *the sentence; as, "He who preserves 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

me, to whom I owe my being, whose [creature] I am, and 
whom I serve is eternal." 

Obs. 1. — The relative who is applied to animals personified: 
as, "The old crab who advised the young one." The relative 
that would be equally proper. 

Obs. 2.— A name taken merely as a name, or in any other 
tense not strictly personal, must not be represented by the rela- 
tive who. The following sentences are, therefere, incorrect* 
"Herod, icho is but another name for cruelty." Who should be 
which. "Elizabeth, who was but another name for prudence and 
economy." Better thus, "whose name was but another word 
for prudence," fyc. 

Note i.— The relative that may be applied either to persons 
or to things. In the following cases, it is preferable to who or 
which:— l! After an adjective of the superlative degree? as, "He 
was the first that came.*'— 2. After the adjective same,- as, 
"This is the same person that I met before." — 3. After the in- 
terrogative icho; as "Who that has common sense, can think 
so?"— 4. After a joint reference to persons and things; as, "He 
spoke of the men and things that he had seen."— 5. After an 
unlimited antecedent; as, "thoughts that breathe, and words 
that burn."-- 6. After an antecedent introduced by the expletive 
it; as, "It was I that did it."— 7. And, in general, where the 
propriety of icho or which is doubtful; as, "The little child that 
was placed in the midst." 

Obs. 1.— Nouns of multitude, unless they express persons di- 
rectly as such, should generally be represented by the relative 
that; as, "The Jam ily that I 'visited/' When such nouns are 
strictly of the neuter gencler, which may represent them: as, 
"The committees which were appointed." 

Obs. 2— When several relative clauses follow one antecedent, 
and have a similar dependence, the same pronoun must be em- 
ployed in each; as, "O thou who art, and icho wast, and who art 
to cornel" 

Obs. 3. — The relative, and the preposition governing it, should 
not be omitted, when they are necessary to give connexion to the 
sentence; as, "He is still in the situation [in which] you saw 
him." ■ -.:.-, 

Obs. 4. — An adverb should not be used where a preposition 
mid a relative pronoun would better express the relation of the 
terms; as, "A cause where justice is so much concerned;"— "in 
which justice is so much concerned." 

Obs. 5. To prevent ambiguity or obscurity, the relative should 
be placed as near as possible to its antecedent. The following 
sentence is faulty: "He is like a beast of prey, that is void of 
compassion:" better thus; "He that is void of compassion, is 
like a beast of prey." _„,. 



SYNTAX. 105 

Ojbs. 6. — The relative what should never be used instead of 
the conjunction that; as, "He will not believe but what I am to 
blame." What should be that. 

RULE VIII. 

A verb must agree with its subject, or nominative 
case, in number and person: as, "I learn; thou art im- 
proved; the birds sing.' 7 

Obs. 1. — Every finite verb, (that is, every verb not in the zw 
Jinitive mood) ought to have a nominative case, either expressed 
or implied; as, "Awake; arise;" that is "Awake thou; (or you;) 
arise thou (or you)" 

Obs. 2. — The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is some- 
times the nominative case to the verb: as, V To see the sun is 
pleasant;'' "To be good is to be happy.'' A subject of this kind, 
however composed, if it is taken as one whole, requires a verb 
in the third person singular. These phrases, or clauses, thus 
constituting the subject of an affirmation, may be termed subject 
phrases. 

Obs. 3. The adjuncts of the nominative do not control its 
agreement with the verb; as, "Six months' interest was due." 
"The propriety of these rules is evident." "The mill, with all 
its appurtenances, was destroyed." In the first of these exam- 
ples, the noun months' is in the possessive case; in the second, 
the noun rules is in the objective case, governed by the preposi- 
tion of; and in the third, "appurtenances" is in the objective 
case, governed by the preposition with. The nouns interest, 
propriety, and mill, are the true nominatives. 

Obs. 4. — A neuter verb between two nominatives should be 
made to agree with that which precedes it; as, "Words are 
wind:" except when the terms are rhetorically transposed, and 
the proper subject is put after the verb: as, "His pavilion were 
dark waters and thick clouds." "Who art thou?" "The wages 
of sin is death." 

Obs. 5. The nominative to a verb in the imperative mood, is 
generally omitted; as, "Guide [thou] my lonely way." Gold- 
smith. But with the verb in all the other personal tenses, the 
nominative must be expressed: except where two or more verbs 
are connected in the same construction; as, "They bud, blow, 
wither, fall, and die." 

RULE IX. 

Two or more nouns, pronouns, or subject phrases, 
joined together by the conjunction and, must have a 
verb, a noun, or a pronoun, agreeing with them in the 
plural number: as, '^Socrates and Plato were wise, they 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

were the most eminent Philosophers of Greece." "To 
be temperate in eating and drinking, to use exercise in 
the open air, and to preserve the mind free from tumul- 
tuous emotions, are the best preservatives of health." 

Obs. 1. — The conjunction is sometimes understood; as, 

"Art, empire, earth itself, to change are doomed." — Beattie. 

Obs. 2. — When the nouns connected are descriptive of one 
and the same object, they are in apposition, and do not require 
a plural verb; as "This philosopher and poet was banished from 
his country." 

Obs. 3. — When the same nominative is repeated, the words 
are in apposition, and do not require a plural verb or pronoun; 
as, 

"Love, and love only, is the loan for love. ,, — Young. 

Obs. 4.— -When the verb separates its nominatives, it agress 
with that which precedes it, and is understood to the rest; as, 



"Forth in the pleasing spring, 



Thy beauty walks, thy tenderness and love/' — Thomson,^ 

Note I. — W T hen two subjects are connected, one of which is 
takeji affirmatively, and the other negatively, they belong to dif- 
ferent propositions; and the verb or pronoun must agree with the 
affirmative subject, and be understood to the other: as, "Diligent 
industry, end not mean savings, produces honourable compe- 
tence." So also when subjects are connected by the compound 
conjunction as-icell-as: as, "Casar, as well as CiCero, was ad- 
mired for his eloquence. 1 * 

Note II.— When the subjects are severally preceded by the 
adjective every, each, or no, they are taken separately, and re- 
quire a verb or pronoun of the third person, singular number: as, 

"And every sense, and every heart is joy." — 7hom. 
"Each beast, each insect, happy in its own." — Pope. 

Note. Ill — If the singular nouns and pronouns which aye 
joined together by the conjunction and, be of several persons, in 
making the plural verb or pronoun agree with them, the second 
person takes place of the third, and the first of both: as, "James, 
and thou, and I, are attached to our country;" i. e. "We aie 
attached to our country." "Thou and he have shared it between 
you;" i. e. "You have shared it," #c. 

RULE X 

Two or more nouns, or pronouns singular, or subject 
phrases, connected by or or nor, require a verb, noun, 
or pronoun, of the singular number, referring to the 



SYNTAX. 107 

preceding terms taken separately: as, ''Ignorance or 
neorligence has caused this mistake;" "John, James, or 
Joseph, intends to accompany me;" "There is, in many 
minds, neither knowledge nor understanding," "Either 
Thomas or Richard will favour us with his company." 

Note I. — When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of 
different persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree 
with that person which is placed nearest to it: as, U I or thou 
art to blame:'' "Thou or I am in fault;" "I, or thou, or he, is 
the author of it;" "George or I am the person." But it would 
be better to say, "Either I am to blame, or thou art," &c. 

Note II. — When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun 
or pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the 
plural noun or pronoun: as, "Neither poverty nor riches were 
injurious to him;" "I or they were offended by it." But in this 
case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently be 
done, should be placed next to the verb. 

Obs. 1. — When the nominatives require different forms of the 
verb, it is, in general, more elegant to express the verb, or its 
auxiliary, in connexion with each of them: as, "Neither were their 
numbers, nor was their destination known;" "Neither was the 
master, nor were the scholars present." 

Obs. 2. — The speaker should generally mention himself last; 
as, "Thou or /must go." — "He then addressed his discourse to 
my father and m«." But in confessing a fault, he may assume 
the first place? as, "/and Robert did h."—^Edgeworth. 

Obs. 3. — When two or more nouns or pronouns of the plural 
nuni ber, are connected by or or nor, they require a verb or pro- 
noun of the plural number, referring to them separately; as ; 
"Neither promises nor threats ware employed to influence his 
conduct; they would have been unavailing." 

Obs. 4. — When antecedents of different person-, numbers, or 
genders, are connected by or or nor, they cannot be represented 
by a pronoun that is not applicable to each of them. 

RULE XI. 

A collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, 
requires a verb, or a pronoun, of the plural number: as, 
''The council were divided in their sentiments." 

But a collective noun conveying the idea of unity, requires a 
| verb or pronoun of the singular number; and the pronoun must 
I be of the neuter gender: as, "The nation enforces its laws;" 
* "The meeting was large; it has been dissolved.'* 

Obs. 1.— -Most collective nouns may take the regular plural 
forte; in which case 3 thgy require a verb or pronoua of the thirj^ 



103- ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

person plural; as, "The nations enforce their laws." "The kings 
armies were defeated/' 

Obs. 2, — The word company, when it merely signifies/eZZow- 
ship, is not a noun of multitude, as many persons erroneously 
suppose. In the following sentence, therefore, the use of the 
plural verb is certainly improper: "The company of Mr. Charles 
Everett and family are requested.'' It should be, "is request- 
ed. " 

Obs. 3. — When a noun of multitude is preceded by a defini- 
tive word, which clearly limits the sense to an aggregate with 
an idea of unity, it requires a verb or pronoun to agree with it 
in the singular number: as, "A company of troops was detached; 
this people is become a great nation; that assembly teas numer- 
ous; a great number of men and women was collected." 

RULE XII. 

Conjunctions connect the same moods of verbs, the 
same forms of participles, and the same cases of nouns 
and pronouns: as, "He himself held the plough, sowed 
the grain, and attended the reapers." — "The master 
taught her and me to write." "He and she were school- 
fellows." 

Obs 1. — Mr. Murray and other grammarians make conjunc- 
tions connect ike tenses of verbs, as well as like moods r unless 
a nominative case intervene: but this would be a confinement 
which our language will not bear. The following sentence ap- 
pears to be perfectly correct; "An Introduction to English Gram- 
mar is now ready for the press, and icill immediately be publish- 
ed for the use of schools." Here the present and the future tenses 
are connected by the conjunction; and if we introduce the neuter 
pronoun which is understood as the nominative case, the easy 
How of the period will be in some measure broken. 

Obs. 2. — Even when the same moods and tenses of verbs are 
connected by conjunctions, it is often necessary to repeat the 
nominative. 

Obs. 3. — Those parts which are common to several verbs, or 
participles, are generally expressed to the first, and understood 
to the rest: as, "Every sincere endeavour to amend shall be as- 
sisted, [shall be'] accepted, and [shall he] rewarded." — "Honor- 
ably do the best you can" [do].— "He thought as I did" [think]. 
"You have seen it, but I have not" [seen it}. 

Obs. 4. — Adjectives, and adverbs also, are frequently connect- 
ed by conjunctions; in which cases, the degree of comparison of 
each, or all, of the words so connected, must be the same. 

Obs. 5. — The word as frequently has the force of a relative 
pronoun; as, "Avoid such as arc vicious." "But to as many as 
received him 8 " &c. Some persons, however, contend that ther© 



SYNTAX. 10D 

is a "considerable ellipsis in such sentences. Thus, they assert 
that, in the sentence, "Avoid such as are vicious,' ' the words 
"they arc who," are understood immediately after the word as. 
But this appears to be an abuse of the principle of ellipsis. 

Obs. 6. — The conjunction that is frequently understood; as, 
"I declare [that] you have not offended me," " VVe hoped [thai} 
you would come." 

Note J; — When the qualities of different things are compared, 
the latter noun or pronoun is not governed by the conjunction 
than or as, but is the subject of a verb, or is governed by a verb 
or a preposition, expressed or understood; as, "Thou art wiser 
than /;" that is, "than I am." "They loved him more than 
me/" that is, "more than they loved me. 1 ' "The sentiment.ex- 
pressed by Plato, but much better by Solomon than him; 11 that is, 
"than by him." 

Note II. — When two terms connected refer jointly to a third, 
they must be adapted to it and to each other, both in sense and 
form. Thus: instead of, "It always has, and always will be 
laudable," say, "It always has been, and it always will be lauda- 
ble." 

Note. III. — After else, other, rather ', and all comparatives, the 
latter term of comparison should be introduced by the conjunc- 
tion than; as, "Can there be any other thantkisV — Harris. 

Obs. 1. — Some conjunctions have correspondent conjunctions 
belonging to them, so that, in the subsequent member of the sen- 
tence, the latter answers to the former: I. Though, — yet, ne- 
vertheless: as, "Though he was rich, yet for our sake he be- 
came poor." 2. Whether and or: as, Whether he will go or 
not, I cannot tell." 3, Either and or: as, "I will either send 
it, or bring it myself." 4. Neither and nor: as, "Neither thou 
nor I am able to compass it." 5. Both and and: as, "Both 
you and I were present." 

Obs. 2. — The, correspondent conjunctions yet, and neverthe- 
less, are often omitted and understood. The word both is also 
frequently omitted. 

RULE XIII. 

Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjectives or oth- 
er adverbs: as, "Any passion that habitually discompo- 
ses our temper, or unfits us for properly discharging the 
duties of life has most certainly gained a very dangerous 
ascendency." 

Obs. 1. — Adverbs sometimes relate to verbs understood; as, 

4i The former has written correctly; but the latter, elegantly."— 

"And [I say] truly, if they had been mindful of that country from 

whence they came out, thev might have had opportunity to have 

10* " 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

returned,"— Heb. And in this manner perhaps, should sentence 
like the following be explained: 

"Say first, of God [who is] above, or man [who is] below, 
[From] What can we reason, but from what we know?"— 

Pope, 

Ob3. ?, — To abbreviate expressions, and give them vivacity , 
verbs of motion fas go, come, rise, get, <$»c.J are sometimes sup- 
pressed, being suggested to the mind by an emphatic adverb; as, 

"I'll hence to London on a serious matter." — Shakspeare. 
."I'll in. I'll in. Follow your friend's counsel. I'll in." — J& 
"Away, old man; give me thy hand; away"— Id. 
"Lovo hath wings, and will away." — Waller. 
"Up, up, Glentarkin! rouse thee, ho!*' — W. Scott. 

Note 1. — Adverbs are placed, for the most part, before ad- 
jectives, after verbs active or neuter, and frequently between the 
auxiliary and the verb: as, "He made a very sensible discourse; 
he spoke unaffectedly and forcibly; and was attentively heard by 
the whole assembly." 

Obs. — For the placing of adverbs, no definite general rule can 
be given. They must be placed in that position which will ren- 
der the sentence the most perspicuous and agreeable. Sometimes 
the adverb is placed with propriety before the verb, or at some 
distance after it; sometimes between the two auxiliaries; and 
iometimes after them both. 

Note II.— Adverbs should not be used as adjectives; nor 
should they be employed when quality is to be expressed, and 
not manner: as, "The soonest time;" — "Thine often infirmities," 
"It seems strangely.* f Such expressions, however, as "The 
then ministry," — "The above discourse," are used by some of our 
most elegant writers. 

Note III.— To the adverbs hence, thence, and whence, the 
preposition from is frequently (though not with strict propriety) 
prefixed. 

Note IV. — A negation, in English, admits of only one nega- 
tive word: as, "I could not wait any longer," — not, "no lon« 
ger." 

Obs. 1.— The repetition of a negative word or clause strength? 
ens the negation; as, "No, no, no." But two negatives in the 
same clause, are equivalent to an affirmative; as, "Nor did they 
not perceive him;" that is, "they did perceive him." "His lan- 
guage, though inelegant, is not ^grammatical:" i. e. "it is 
grammatical." 

Obs. 2. — Such expressions as "I know nothing about it," and 
"I do not know any thing about it," are synonymous, and both 
of them correct: but it would be highly improper to say, "I do 
not know nothing about it;" unless I meant to convey the idea 
that "I do know something about it." 



SYNTAX. Ill 

Obs. 3. — No, when prefixed to a noun, is an adjective; as, 

"No clouds, no vapours intervene." — Dyer. 

There is sometimes a remarkable ambiguity in the use of the 
negative adjective no. If I say, "JVb laws are better than those 
of England," it is only my known' sentiments that can inform a 
person whether I mean to praise, or dispraise them. It would 
be more perspicuous to say, "The laws of England are a3 good 
as any other laws." 

Obs. 4. — The words no and not, after whether and or, are 
*sed variously by our best writers, and sometimes even promis- 
cuously by the same writer. "Whether it be so or no." — Addi- 
son. "Hence, whether in imitation of Catullus, or not, we apply 
the same thought to the moon.'' — Idem. "Whether he be so 
or not, let his despatches, &c. determine for him." — Junius. 
"Whether or no this be the law of Parliament." — Idem. "We 
ere inquiring ivhether incapacity be, or be not, created by expul- 
sion." — Idem. In the last example, the auxiliary being re- 
peated before the negative, the word no, instead of not, would 
undoubtedly be improper. Such expressions as, "Tell me wheth- 
er you will go or no," appear to be inaccurate: no should be not; 
for "go" is understood after it. 

Obs. 5. — The adverb yes, expressing a simple affirmation, and 
the adverb no, expressing a simple negation, are always indepen- 
dent. They generally answer a question; and are equivalent to 
a repetition of it, in the form of an affirmative or a negative pro- 
position. It is observable, that an answer of this kind does not 
at all depend on the manner in which the question is asked. 
Whether my friend say, "Are you disposed to take a walk?" or, 
"Are you not disposed to take a walk?" if I be disposed to walk, 
I say "Fes;" if not, I say "No." 

Obs. 6. — Ever is preferable to never, in sentences like the fol- 
lowing: "Though he were ever so rich, he would not be satisfi- 
ed." "He is mistaken, though ever so wise." 

Obs. 7. — We sometimes find adverbs used after the manner 
of nouns; as, "The Son of man hath not where to lay his head." 
"An eternal now does always last." 

RULE XIV. 

In the use of words and phrases which, in point of 
time, relate to each other, a due regard to that relation 
should be observed. Instead of saying, "I remember 
the family more than twenty years;" we should say, "I 
have remembered the family more than twenty years." 
Instead of "I have known him when he was in good cir- 
cumstances;" it should be, "I knew him," &c. 

Obs. 1. — It is not easy, in all cases, to give particular rules, 



m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

for the arrangement of words and phrases which relate to one 
another, so that they may be proper and consistent. The best 
rule that can be given, is this very general one, "To observe what 
the sense necessarily requires.'* The definitions of the tenses, 
and the observations relating to them, in Etymology, must be at- 
tentively perused. 

Obs. 2. — Shall and will, should and would, can and will, 
could and would, may and will, might and would, generally cor- 
respond to one another in different clauses of a sentence; as, "I 
shall be happy, if you will do me the favor to call upon my 
friend;" — "I should be much obliged, if he would remain in town 
to-day," &c. It would not be correct to say, "I shall be happy, 
if you would do me the favor," &c. nor, "I should be happy, if 
you will do me the favor,'' &c. 

Obs. 3. — Verbs of commanding, desiring, expecting, hoping, 
intending, 'permitting, and some others in all their tenses, refer 
to actions or events, relatively future: one should therefore say, 
"I hoped you would come," — not, li would have come;" and, "I 
intended to do it," — not, "to have done it," &c. It must be con- 
fessed, however, that some of the most respectable writers fre- 
quently employ the latter mode of expression. 

Obs. 4. — Propositions that are at all times equally true or false, 
should generally be expressed in the present tense; as, "He 
seemed hardly to know, that two and two make four," — not, 
["made." 

RULE XV. 

In' ejections have no dependent construction: as, 
{, 0/ let not thy heart despise me. 11 —Johnson. 

Obs. — Interjections in English have no government. ,, -Low^. 
When a word not in the nominative case independent, is con- 
nected with an interjection, or used in exclamation, its construc- 
tion generally depends upon something understood; as, Ah me!" 
— that is, "Ah! pity me," — "Wo is me!" — that is, "Wo is to 
me." 

RULE XVI. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, is govern- 
ed by the name of the thing possessed: as, "This is 
Richard's book." 

Obs. 1. — Every possessive is governed by some noun expressed 
or implied; except such as (without the possessive sign) are put 
in apposition; or connected by conjunctions, to others so govern- 
ed. 

Obs. 2. — The governing noun is sometimes understood; as, 
"At the Alderman's" [house].-*- "A book of my brother's" 
[books] . 



SYNTAX. 113 

Obs. 3. — When words in the possessive case are connected 
by conjunctions, expressed or understood, the governing noun 
is often expressed after one, and understood after the rest; as, 

"Add Nature's Custom's Reason's Passion's strife. — Pope, 

Note. I. — When nouns of the possessive case are connected 
by conjunctions, or put in apposition, the sign of possession must 
always be annexed to such, and such only, as immediately pre- 
cede the governing noun, expressed or understood; as, "John and 
Eliza's teacher is a man of more learning than James's [teacher] 
or Andrew's" [teacher], — ''For David my servant's sake." — 
"Lost in love's [smile] and friendship's smile." 

Note II. — The sign of the possessive case is sometimes an- 
nexed to that part of a compound name, which is, of itself, in the 
objective case; as, "The captain-of-the-g-ttard's house. — "The 
Bard-of-Lomond's lay is done. — Hogg. 

Obs. 1. — To avoid a concurrence of hissing sounds, the s is 
sometimes omitted, and the apostrophe only retained; as, "For 
conscience' sake," — "Moses' minister/' — "Felix' room," — 
"Achilles' wrath." But in prose, this elision should be sparingly 
indulged. 

Obs. 2. — The relation of property may also be expressed by 
the preposition of: as, "The will of man;" for, "man's will." 
Of these forms, we should adopt that which will render the sen- 
tence the most perspicuous and agreeable. 

Obs 3. — The preposition of joined to a substantive is equiva- 
lent to the possessive case, only when the expression can be con- 
verted into the regular form of that case. VVe can say, "The re- 
ward of virtue," and "Virtue's reward;'' but though it is proper 
to say, "A crown of gold;'' we cannot convert the expression 
into the possessive case, and say, "Gold's crown." The phrase 
"A vehicle of thought 17 is established by the practice of our best 
speakers and writers. If I say, "Mr. James Brown is a man of 
sense" does it necessarily follow that I assert, that "sense" is 
the material of which he is made? or, if I say, "A beast of bur- 
den,*' will it be inferred that 1 mean to insinuate, that the beast 
of which I speak, is made of a material called "burden!" Mr. J. 
Brown would lead us to suppose so. 

Note III. — A noun governing the possessive plural, should 
not be made plural, unless the sense requires it. Thus: say, "We 
have changed our mind" if only one purpose or opinion is meant. 

Obs. 1. — A noun taken figuratively may be singular, when the 
literal meaning would require the plural: such expressions as 
"Their /ace"— "Their neck" —"Their hand' 1 — "Their head"*— 
&c. are frequent in the Scriptures, and are not improper. 

Obs. 2. — VVe sometimes meet with three substantives depend- 
ent on one another, and connected by the preposition of applied to 
each of them : as, "The severity of the distress of the son of the 
king, touched the nation;" which would be better expressed by 
saying, "The severe distress of the king's son, touched the na- 
tion." 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RULE XVII. 

Active-transitive verbs, and their imperfect and com- 
pound participles, govern the objective case: as, "I found 
her assisting him." — "Having finished the work) I sub- 
mit it:" 

Obs. 1.— The objective case generally follows the governing 
word: but when it is emphatic, it often precedes the nominative; 
as, "Me he restored to mine office, and him he hanged/' — Gen. 
xii. 13. "Home he had not." — "This poiwi they have gained." 
In poetry it is sometimes placed between the nominative and the 
verb; as, "His daring foe securely him defied." — Milton. An 
interrogative pronoun is commonly placed at the head of its 
clause, when it is governed by a verb; as, "Whom did they see?" 
but when it is governed by a preposition, the governing word 
should, in general, immediately precede the pronoun; as, "To 
whom did they apply?" instead of, "Whom did they apply to?" 

Obs. 2. — Every active-transitive verb usually has either a noun 
or a pronoun, or some dependent clause or sentence, for its ob- 
ject. 

Obs. 3. — The object of the verb can be known by its answer- 
ing to the question Whom? what? or which? as in the sentence, 
"You love John," the answer to the question, Whom do you 
love? is, "John." In the sentence, "Boys love to play," the in- 
firutive "to play" answers to the question, What do boys love? 
and it may be called an objective phrase, governed by the verb 
*Hove." 

Obs. 4. — The verbs said, answered, replied, rejoined, and per- 
haps some others, frequently have for their object, not only a 
phrase or a sentence, but even a long series of sentences— a 
whole discourse. 

Note I. — Verbs and participles that require a regimen, should 
not be employed without it; as, "She affects [kindness'] in order 
to ingratiate [herself] with you." — "I will not allow of it." — 
Expunge of. 

Obs. — The particle of is frequently subjoined, by good speakers 
and writers, to the words admit and accept; and indeed, it would, 
on many occasions, seem stiff, if not improper, to omit this par- 
ticle. We properly say, "He will not admit such a person into 
his house:" but it is very doubtful whether it would be correct 
to say, "His words do not admit a favourable construction." 

Note II. — Those verbs and participles which do not admit of 
a regimen, ■ should not be used transitively; as, "The planters 
grow cotton." Say raise ox cultivate cotton. 

Note III.— Some verbs will govern a kindred noun* or its pro= 
noun, but no other; as, "He lived a virtuous life."— "Hear, I pray 
you, this dream which I have dreamed," 



SYNTAX. 115 

RULE XVIII. 

The verbs to teach, to pay, to ask; and verbs of de» 
daring, of making, and of naming, often govern two ob- 
jective cases: as, "He taught me grammar;" — "1 have 
paid him his wages;" — "They asked him many ques- 
tions;" — "Thy saints proclaim thee king:" — "The Au- 
thor of my being formed me man;"— "And God called 
the firmament Heaven" — (See Etymology.) 

N. B. — The two objectives governed by verbs of declaring, 
of making, and of naming, are in apposition. 

Obs. — All our grammarians assert, that the former of the two 
objective cases, in some of the above mentioned examples, is 
governed by a preposition understood. Thus, they say that, in 
the sentence, "I have paid him his wages/' the pronoun him is 
governed by to or unto, understood. Will they maintain also, 
that the pronoun is governed by a preposition, in the following 
sentences? "Who paid him? 1 ' "I paid him." Is it not evident 
that, in both these sentences, the word him is governed by the 
vexb paid? and if it is, what reason can be assigned for ascribing 
the government of the pronoun to a preposition, when another 
Wiord is subjoined to ihe pronoun? It is true that we may ex- 
press ourselves as follows: "I paid his wages to him;" but this 
only proves that there are different ways of expressing the same 
sentiment. How is the following sentence to be parsed? — "I 
paid him for his services." ' 

RULE XIX. 

The passives of such active verbs as govern two ob- 
jective cases, retain the latter of them: as, "I was 
taught grammar by him;" — "I understand mathematics; 
1 w^s taught them by an eminent scholar." "He was 
'asked questions;" — "John was paid his wages;" — "She 
is named Eliza." "The firmament was called Heaven." 
"He was called names;" "He was called them by me." 

RULE XX. 

Active-intransitive and neuter verbs, and their parti- 
ciples, take the same case after as before them, when 
both words refer to the same thing: as, K l am he whom 
they invited." — "He returned a friend, who came a 
foe." — "Jam considered [to be] he, sir.' 

Obs. 1.— This is, perhaps, more properly a rule of agreement, 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

than of government: the word which follows the verb or partici- 
pie, may be said to be in apposition with that which precedes it. 

Obs. 2. — In this rule, the terms after and before refer rather to 
the order of the sense and construction, than to the placing of 
the words. The proper subject of the verb is the nominative to 
it, or before it; and the other nominative, however placed, belongs 
after it. 

Obs. 3. — In interrogative sentences, the terms are usually 
transposed, or both are placed after the verb; as, 

"Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape?" — Milton. 
"Art thou that traitor angel? art thou he?" — Idem. 

Obs. 4. — In a declarative sentence, there may be a rhetorical 
or poetical transposition of the terms; as, 

"Far other scene is Thrasymene now." — >Byron, 

Obs. 5. — In some peculiar constructions, both words naturally 
come before the verb; as, "I know not who she is." And they 
are sometimes placed in this manner by transposition; as, "Yet 
he it is."- — Young, 

Obs. 6. — Mr. Murray and other grammarians, have taught that 
passive verbs have the same case both before and after them. 
But I have shown that the passives of some active verbs always 
require the objective case. For instance, in the sentence, "I was 
taught the rules by Thomas," "rules" is proved to be in the ob- 
jective case, by substituting the pronoun them: thus, "I was 
taught them" &c. "He was asked questions;" "He was called 
names;" "He was asked them;" &c. 

RULE XXI, 

Prepositions govern the objective case: as, "I have 
heard a good character of her;" "From him that is nee- 
dy turn not away;" "A word to the wise is sufficient for 
them;" "We may be good and happy without riches." 

Obs. 1. — Most of the prepositions may take for their object, a 
phrase, or part of a sentence, beginning with a participle; as, "On 
opening the trial, they accused him of having defrauded 
them." Here, "opening the trial," and "having defrauded them, 9 ' 
may be termed objective phrases, governed by the prepositions on 
and of respectively. These phrases may be analyzed; by which 
it will be observed that the participle is not- converted into a 
noun, and that it therefore retains its regimen. 

In the phrases, "On applying to the governor," "In treating 
of grammar," 'applying to,' and 'treating of are participles of 
the compound verbs to apply-to, and to treai-of. — See Etymolo- 
gy, under the head "Compound verbs." 

Obs. 2. — Prepositions aro sometimes elliptically construed 
with adjectives: as, in vain, in secret, at first, on high; i, e. 



SYNTAX. 117 

in a vain manner , in secret places, at the first time, on high places. 
Such phrases imply time, place, degree, or manner, and are equi- 
valent to adverbs.— In the following sentence, the preposition in 
appears to be improperly applied: "It will be in vain to appeal," 
&c. — Junius, This is a very common error, which ought to be 
carefully avoided. 

Obs. 3. — Before nouns of time or measure, the prepositions 
that govern them are generally suppressed: as, "We rode sixty 
miles that day;" that is, "through sixty miles on that day." Such 
expressions as "a board o/six feet long," "A boy of twelve years 
old," are wrong; because the words k six feet,* and Hwelve years? 
are adverbial phrases, answering to the questions, Hoio long? 
How old? Say, "A board six feet long;" "A boy twelve years 
old;" or, "A board of six feet in length;" "A boy of twelve 
years of age." 

Obs. 4. — After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the prepo- 
sition, to or unto is generally understood; as, "It is like [to or 
unto'] silver." — Allen. "How like the former!" — Dryden. "Near 
yonder copse." — Goldsmith. "Nigh this recess."— Gar th. As 
similarity and proximity are relations, and not qualities, it might 
seefm proper to call like, near, and nigh, prepositions; and some 
grammarians have so classed the last two. We have not placed 
them with the prepositions; because they admit of adverbs be- 
fore them; because the preposition to or unto is sometimes ex- 
pressed after them; and the words which usually stand for them 
in the learned languages, are clearly adjectives. Like, when it 
expresses similarity of manner; .and near and nigh, when they 
express proximity of degree, are adverbs. 

Obs. 5. — The adjective worth is followed by the objective 
case, governed, perhaps, by of understood; as, "The book is 
worth a dollar." Some suppose that worthy in this construc- 
tion, is a noun, and that there is a double ellipsis of the prepo- 
sition; as, "The book is [of the] worth [of] a dollar." After 
the kindred adjectives worthy and unworthy , of should be ex- 
pressed; as, "It is worthy of remark." — "It is unworthy of no- 
tice." 

Obs. 6. — Worth was anciently a verb signifying be, and used 
in every part of the conjugation. Some traces of this usage are 
found in modern writings; as, 

"Wo worth the chase, wo worth the day, 
That cost thy life, my gallant gray!" — Scott. 

Here worth is a verb, and to is understood after it; the meaning 
being, "Wo be to the chase," &c. 

Obs. 7. — After verbs of giving, procuring, and some others, 
there is usually an ellipsis of to or for before the objective of tho 
person, when this objective precedes the one governed by the 
verb; as, "Give [to] him water to drink." "Buy [for] me a 
knife." It is remarkable that when the preposition is expressed, 
the objective cases, in such sentences, are generally transposed; 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as, "Give this money to your father' '—"Buy a knife for me. and 
one for my brother."* 

Obs. 8. — In expressing such sentences passively, the object 
of the preposition is sometimes assumed for the nominative; and 
the noun following the passive verb, is in the objective case; as, 
"We were offered seats;" -"We were offered them repeatedly." 
"He was denied those privileges to which he was entitled/' — 
See Rule XIX, and the 6th observation under Rule XX* 

Note I. — Prepositions must be employed agreeably to th« 
usage and idiom of the language, so as rightly to express the ra- 
lations intended. 

Obs. 1.*— The preposition into, expresses a relation produced 
by motion or change; and in, the same relation, without refer- 
ence to motion: hence, "to walk into the garden," and, "to walk 
in the garden," are very different. 

Obs. 2. — Between or betwixt is used in reference to two things 
or parties: among, amongst, or amidst, in reference to a greater 
number, or to something by which another may be surrounded; 
as, 

"Thou pendulum betwixt a smile and tear." — Byron. 
"The host between the mountain and the shore." — Id* 
"To meditate amongst decay, and stand 
A ruin amidst ruins." — Id. 

Obs. 3. — Two separate prepositions have sometimes a joint 
reference to the same noun; as, "He boasted of, and contended 
for, the privilege." This construction is formal, and scarcely 
allowable, except in the law style. It is better to say, "He 
boasted of the privilege, and contended/or it." 

RULE XXII. 

The infinitive mood may be introduced by any part 
of speech, except an article or a preposition; aSj 

1. By a noun; as, "He had leave to go. 19 

2. By an adjective; as, "We were anxious to see you." 

3. By a pronoun; as, "I discovered him to be a scholar." 

4. By a verb: as, "Cease to do evil." 

v 5. By a participle; as, li Endeavouring to escape, he fell." 

6. By an adverb; as, "She is old enough to go to school." 

7. By a conjunction; as, "Explain this subject so as to make 
me understand it." 

8. By an Interjection; (eliiptically;) as, "O to forget her!" 

Obs. I,* — Anciently, the infinitive was frequently preceded by 
the prepositions/or; as, "I went up to Jerusalemybr toworship" 
Acts xxiv. 11. "What went ye out for to sec?" — Luke vii. 26. 



-"Learn skilfullie how 



"Each grain for to laic by itself on a mow."— Tusscr. 



SYNTAX. 119 

Modern usage rejects the preposition for. It is probable, how- 
ever, that the infinitive is generally, if not always, governed by 
this preposition understood. 

Obs. 2. — Mr. Goold Brown says, "The preposition to, governs 
the Infinitive mood, and commonly connects it to a finite verb: 
as, c fl desire to learn" he then makes the following observa- 
tions: 

M l. — No word is more variously explained by grammarians, 
than this word to, which is prefixed to the verb in the infinitive 
mood. Johnson, Walker, Scott, and other lexicographers, call it 
an adverb; but, in explaining its use, they say it denotes certain 
relations which it is not the office of an adverb to express. [See 
Johnson's Dictionary, 4to.] Lowth, Murray, Comly, and oth- 
ers, call it a preposition; and some of these ascribe to it the gov- 
ernment of the verb, and others do not. Lowth says, "The pre- 
position to, placed before the verb, makes the infinitive mood. 7 ' 
Skinner, in his Canones Etymologici, calls it an equivocal arti- 
cle. Home Tooke, who shows that most of our conjunctions 
and prepositions may be traced back to ancient verbs and nouns, 
says that to has the same origin as do, and he seems to consider 
it an auxiliary verb. Many are content to call it a prefix, a partir 
cle, a sign of the infinitive, &c. without telling us why or hoio it 
is so, or to what part of speech it belongs. If it be a part of the 
infinitive, it is a verb, and must be classed with the auxiliaries. 
We have given in the preceding rule, that explanation which we 
consider to be the most correct and the most simple." 

"2. — Most grammarians have considered the word to, apart 
of the infinitive; and have referred the government of this mood 
to a preceding verb. But the rule which they give, is partial and 
often inapplicable; and their exceptions to it are numerous and 
puzzling. They teach that at least half the different parts of 
speech frequently govern the infinitive: if so, there should be a 
distinct rule for each; for why should the government of one part 
,of speech be made an exception to that of another? and, if this 
be done, with respect to the infinitive, why not also with respect 
to the objective case? In all cases to which their rule is appli- 
cable, the rule here given amounts to the same thing; and it ob- 
viates the necessity for their numerous exceptions, and the em- 
barrassment arising from other constructions of the infinitive not 
noticed in them." — (See Goold Broicn's Gram. Syntax, Rule 23. 

Obs. 3. — The writer of this grammar, coinciding in opinion 
with "most grammarians," on the subject of the word to, con- 
siders it '"apart of the infinitive," and, consequently ic an auxilia- 
ry verb.*' 

Obs. 4. — Many grammarians have called the infinitive an inde- 
clinable noun. In many respects it certainly resembles one in 
signification. It may stand for — 

1. A subject; as, "To steal is sinful." 

2> A predicate; as, "To enjoy is to obey >"-^P ope. 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR; 

3. A purpose, or an end; as, "He's gone to do it."— Edge* 
worth, 

4. An employment; as, "He loves to ride" 

5. A cause; as, "I rejoice to hear it." 

6. A term of comparison; "He was so much affected as to 
weep.** 

Obs. 5. — In most cases, a verb in the infinitive mood will an- 
swer to the question, For what? or, For what purpose? Thus, 
in the sentence, "He had leave to go," the answer to the ques- 
tion, "For what purpose? or, For what, had he leave?" is, "to 
go." — "They were anxious" — for what? "to see you."— "She is 
old enough" — for what? — "to go to school." 

Obs. 6. — The infinitive sometimes depends upon a noun un- 
derstood; as, [In order~] "To be candid with you, [I confess^that] 
I was in fault." 

Obs. 7. — The infinitive, or a phrase of which the infinitive is 
a part, being introduced apparently as the subject of a verb, but 
superseded by some other word, is put absolute, or left unconnect- 
ed, by pleonasm; as, 

"2b be, or not to be— that is the question." — Shakspeare. 

Obs. 8.— The infinitive to be, is often understood; as, "I sup- 
pose it [to be] necessary. 

Obs. £• — The infinitive usually follows the word on which it 
depends; but this order is sometimes reversed: as, 

"To catch your vivid scenes, too gross her hand." — Thomson* 

RULE XXIII. 

The defective veri>s dare, durst, need, may, can, must, 
might, could, would, and should, take the Infinitive after 
them, without the sign to: as, "He dare not act contra- 
ry to his instructions;" "If he had been commanded, he 
durst not have disobeyed; 11 "He need not proceed in such 
haste;" "I may go to-morrow;" "You can follow me 
next week," &c. 

Note I.— The regular neuter verb dare, (to venture, J when it 
is immediately followed, in the present, or the imperfect tense, 
by the adverb not, but, or only, generally has the infinitive after 
it, without the sign to: as, "He dares not oppose me." — "The 
French ministers dared not acquaint Philip," &c. But if an 
auxiliary be used, the word to must be expressed: as, "He does 
not dare to oppose me." "He did not dare to do it." 

Obs. 1. — The active verb dare, (to challenge,) always re- 
quires that the sign to be expressed to the infinitive that follows 
it; as, "He dared me to fight him. 1 ' 



SYNTAX. 121 

Obs. 2. — The active verb need, (which is regular,) and tho 
participles of need and dare, alicays have to expressed to the 
infinitive that follows them. — See the Examples for Parsing, 
below. 

Obs. 3. — All the compound tenses of need and dare, (the 
whole of the passive voice included,) require that the word Ta 
be expressed to the infinitive following them. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

In which Rule XXIII, and the note and observations under it, 
are exemplified. 

Lesson I. 

What would dare to molest him who might call, on every side, 
to thousands enriched by his bounty? — Dr. Johnson. 

What art thou, O son of man! who, having sprung but yester- 
day out of the dust, darest to lift up thy voice against thy Maker? 

Blair. 

I dare say he is not got home yet. — Dr. Aikin. 

I charge thee, therefore, to approach no farther; nor dare to 
wet the feet of thy sovereign. — Goldsmith. 

You cannot recollect the submissiveness with which your mind 
yielded to instructions, as from an oracle, or the hardihood with 
which you dared to examine and oppose them. — Foster. 

No one dared, for some days, to make any mention of his 
name.— 'Goldsmith. They would not dare to expel him. — Id, 

Lesson II, 

The load, by these means, need not be piled so high as usual.— 
R. L. Edgeworth. I however dared to think for myself. — Id. 

There can scarcely be a stronger proof of any man's consist- 
ency and singleheartedness, than that his best friends can dare 
to lay before the public his really private correspondence. — Ma* 
Via Edgeworth. I dare say there were hundreds of them. — Dr. 
Aikin. 

Real spirit is shown in resisting importunity and examples, and 
in daring to do what we think right, independently of the opi- 
nion of others. — R. L. Edgeworth. 

Nor dare to hiss, but clap each little actor, 

Content, though coarse, with home- made manufacture.— Id, 

I dare to rely upon my own impartiality. — Id. 

I have dared to publish the whole transaction — Id. 

She would write to ask you some questions, if she dared. — Id, 

Who could have dared to hope, that he should ever have found 
another equally deserving to possess his whole confidence and 
affection?— M. Edgeworth, 
11* 



12£ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

This elementary school shall be established, whenever a mas- 
ter, and, what is of more consequence, a mistress of the house, can 
be provided, for whose manners, morals, tenderness, knowledge, 
and successful experience in teaching, I can dare to pledge my- 
self. — R. L. Edgeworth, 

Lesson in. 

If they invaded the rights of the people, they did not dare to 
offer a direct insult to their understanding. — Junius, 

Is this the man who dares to talk of Wilkes's morals? — Id, 

Whoever wishes to cheat a neighbor of his estate, or to rob a 
country of its rights, need make no scruple of consulting the doc- 
tor himself. — Id. 

They would not dare to expel him. — Id, 

I should hope to see the person who dared to present such a 
petition immediately impeached. — Id. 

It has prevented their daring to assert their own dignity.—- Id. 

It is impossible that any minister shall dare to advise the king 
to place such a man as Luttrell in the confidential post of adju- 
tant-general, if there were not some secret purpose in view.— id. 

You dare not pretend to be ignorant.— Id, 

Lesson iv. 

That our manners and our morality are equal to those of Great 
Britain, ought not to be enough —we need to have advanced 
a very little way in either, to be able to make that boast with 
truth. — Old Bachelor, 

It was not on that city that I dared to hope for an impression. 
— Id. 

Some men have dared to assert, and pretend to believe, that 
knowledge is by no means an essential element of publick virtue, 
publick liberty, publick happiness. — Id. 

Such are thy achievements, midnight labour and holy emula- 
tion*. Achievements which the God of Nature has formed other 
men capable of repeating by the same means; but who are poor- 
ly and indolently content to pass iheir lives in admiring, instead 
of greatly and heroically, daring to rival them. — Id. 

There are few, indeed, who dare to adopt it — Id. 

She excelled a Poet whom Horace says no man should ever 
dare to imitate. — Id. 

I had now too, for the first time in my life, a secret which I 
dared not communicate, even to the wife of my bosom.— Id, 

Lesson v. 

Buthearingjby the way, of his son's and brother's misfortunes, 
ho dismissed his troops, not daring to keep the field with so small 
a force, before an army superior in number and flushed with re- 
cent victory.— Goldsmit h % 



SYNTAX. 123 

The people, therefore, beheld the violence of their conduct in 
silent fright, internally disapproving, yet not daring to avow their 
detestation. — Id. 

With this he was able to comply, as the viceroy was asleep, 
and no person dared to disturb him. — Id. 

They ought either not to have furnished the people with a just 
cause, or even with a plausible pretence, for presenting such 
remonstrances, or they ought to have punished them for daring 
to present them. — Id. 

That gentleman, together with the aldermen Wilkes and 
Oliver, not only discharged the printer, but required the messen- 
ger to give bail, to answer the complaint of the printer against 
him, for daring to seize him in the city without the order of a 
magistrate. — Id. 

Oh Happiness! our being's end and aim; 

Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content! whatever thy name: 

That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh, 

For which we bear to live, or dare to die; 

Which still so near us, yet beyond us lies, 

O-'erlook'd, seen double, by the fool, and wise. — Pope* 

Be still thyself; that open path of Truth 

Which led thee here, let manhood firm pursue; 

Retain the sweet simplicity of youth, 

And all thy virtue dictates, dare to do. — Moore's Fables. 

For us, his infants, and his bride, 

For us, with only love to guide, 

Our lord assumes an eagle's speed, 

And like a lion dares to bleed.— Idem. 

What midnight robber dare invade 

The fold, if I the guard am made? — Id, 

Justice must authorize the treat: 

Till then he long'd, but durst not eat. — Id. 

From earth thus hoping aid in vain, 

To heav'n not daring to complain; 

No truce by hostile clamor giv'n, 

And from the face of friendship driv'n; 

The nymph sunk prostrate on the ground, 

With all her weight of woes around.— Id. 

Lesson yi. 

What punishment ought, then, to be inflicted upon a tyranni- 
cal and wicked praetor, who dared, at no greater distance than 
Sicily, within sight of the Italian coast, to put to the infamous 
death of crucifixion, that unfortunate and innocent citizen, Pub^ 
lius Gavius Cosanus? — Tr. of Cicero^s Orations. 

What are you, soldiers? you are only the guardians of the na- 
tional representation—and you dare to menace its safety and in- 
dependence!-— 2V. of the Life of Bonaparte. 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Well then, march to give them battle; oppose their retreat; 
snatch from them the laurels they have gained; and thereby in- 
form the world, that the curse of misfortune is sure to fall on 
those senseless beings, who dare to insult the territory of the 
great nation. — Id. 

A few writers have dared to utter bold truths. — >M. Carey. 

Few men dare offer to stem the torrent. — Carte. 

They persecuted all who dared to differ from them. — M. Carey, 

They did not dare to venture into Dublin. — Id. 

Will any man dare to commit himself. — Id. 

They have dared to assemble themselves. — Faulkland. 

Clarendon has dared to impose upon a betrayed and deluded 
world. — M. Carey. 

Who would dare to censure for cowardice, the man who shot 
General Wolfe, or General Montgomery'?. — Id. 

No one dared to assist or advise me. — Lingard, 

The new duke would not, or dared not, interfere.— Id. 

They were the only order of men who dared to oppose a bar- 
rier to them. — Id. 

He dared not inform the king. — Id. 

No man durst say to him aught but good. — Id. 

And if they dared to remonstrate, their presumption was pun- 
ished.—/^ 

For no one dared to enter into litigation with his sovereign.— 

Idr 

Matilda assured him that she did not dare to interfere. — Id. 

And it was very seldom that any peer dared to incur the regal 
displeasure by standing up in the defence of innocence — Id. 

That celebrated lawyer assures us that there was not now in 
the king's court a judge, who dared to sioerve from the path of 
justice, or to pronounce an opinion inconsistent with truth. — Id, 

He vanquished every champion that dared to oppose him. — Id. 

Within the kingdom no man dared to dispute his authority. — 
j#. — He dared not pursue him. — .Id. 

Edward had resolved to forgive: but dared not expose his reso- 
lution. — Id. 

He did not dare to answer without the advice of the good 
men. — Id. 

But the time was gone by, when Boniface, if he had possessed 
the will, could have dared to fight the battles of these vassals.— 
Id. We dare not speak to him ourselves. — Id. 

Few places dared to oppose so overwhelming a force. — Id. 

He never dared to make the renunciation. — Id. 

Nor did he dare to halt, till the earl of March admitted, &c— 

Id. 

They dared not reject the person recommended by the king.— 

Id. 

He dared not indeed meet them in open combat.— Id. 

He dared net ask it from his subjects,— Id, 



SYNTAX. 125 

He offered to meet in single combat any man who should dare 
to repeat it. — Id. 

No one dared to support such an accusation against him.— -Id, 

He dared not summon a parliament. — Id. 

He dared not mention the name. — Id. 

Cromwell would not have dared to oppose the bill, nor the com» 
mons to reject it, had they not received an intimation that such 
was the regal pleasure.— Id. 

He dared not risk the offence. — Id. 

The former dared not to dissent from the decision. — Id* 

Not one dared to open his mouth in opposition. —Id. 

He need only make the experiment. — Id. 

Nor did the minister dare to act. — Id. 

They dared not attack him. — Id. 

The memory of Charles needs not to be loaded with infamy.— 
Id. 

I needed not to have come hither. — Charles I. apud eundem. 

This prince dared4o concert hostile movements with his new 
allies.— Baines. 

No one dared to blame, and no one was allowed to vindicate 
the act.— Id. 

Such rancour this, of such a poisonous vein, 
As never, never shall my paper stain; 
Much less infect my heart, if I may dare 
■ For my own heart, in any thing to swear*~-Francis. 

"Where's the coward that would not dare 
To fight for Liberty!" 

Even he, across whose brain scarce dares to creep 
Aught but thrift's parent pair- — to get, to keep, &c— 

Mr. Spr ague's Poem on Curiosity, 

N. B. — It is presumed that the preceding examples afford suf- 
ficient evidence of the correctness of the rules here laid down, 
respecting the verbs need and dare. Should further proofs, 
however, appear necessary, 1 am ready to produce them in abun- 
dance. Indeed this can be done with great facility; for there is 
scarcely a book, a pamphlet, or a newspaper, to be found, in which 
examples of this kind do not occur. 

RULE XXIV. 

The active verbs let, bid, make, feel, hear, see, and 
their participles, together with the objective of a per- 
son, take an infinitive, without the sign to: as, "I let 
him do it;" "He bade me go;" "We saw him do it;" 
"I heard him say it;" "He made them return;" "They 
felt him move" 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Obs. 1 — The particle to is always expressed after the pas- 
sive form of bid, make, feel, hear, and see; as, "He was heard to 
say it;" "He was seen to do it." But after ihe passive form of 
let, the word to is suppressed; as, "He was let go." 

Obs. 2. — The auxiliary be of the passive infinitive is also sup- 
pressed, after feel, hear, make, and see; as, "I heard the letter 
read" — not '"bercad." 

Obs. 3. — A participle, instead of an infinitive, is sometimes 
employed after the objective case that follows feel, hear, or see; 
as, 4, I felt it moving;" "I heard her singing;" "I saw him 
walking " This implies a continuation of the action, or state 
of being, 

Obs. 4. — Many other verbs are usually followed by an objec- 
tive case and a verb in the infinitive mood; but not without the 
particle to; as '-I commanded him to do it;" "I wish him not to 
wrestle with his happiness;" "He advised me to be patient," &c. 
4 'He dared me to oppose him." 

Obs. 5. — To is sometimes omitted after have; as, "I would 
have him call on you immediately;" that is, "I would advise 
him," &c. But this use of the word have is not to be recom- 
mended. In another use of the verb have, both to and be of the 
passive infinitive after it, are omitted; as, "He would have the 
letter read," — not, "be read," or, "to be read." 

Obs. 6. — To the verbs enumerated in Rule xxiv, may be ad- 
ded the active verbs, behold, observe, perceive, and, perhaps, some 
others; as, "I have observed some young persons behave very 
rudely." 

%LE XXV. 

A noun or a pronoun prece ding a participle, is put ab- 
solute in the nominatf , when its case depends on no 
other word: as, "He failing, who shall meet suc- 
cess?" — "Shame being lost, all virtue is lost." — "That 
[subject] having been discussed long ago, there is no oc- 
casion to resume it.'* 

Obs. 1. — The nominative put absolute with a participle, is 
equivalent to a dependent clause commencing with when, while, 
if, since, or because; as, "I being a child," — equal to, "When I 
was a child. * * 

Obs. 2. — The participle being is often understood after nouns 
os* pronouns put absolute; as, 

"Alike in ignorance, his reason [ ] such, 

Whether he thinks too little or too much." — Pope. 

Obs. 3. — The learner should be informed of the difference, 
both in sense and construction, between the following forms of 
expression: "The chancellor, being attached to the king, secured 



SYNTAX. 1ST 

his crown;' ' — "The chancellor being attached to the king, hb 
crown was secured." In the former sentence, chancellor is ths 
nominative case to the verb secured; and the crown is represent- 
ed to have been secured to the king, by the chancellor: in the 
latter, it is stated that the king's crown was secured to him, in 
Consequence of the chancellor's attachment; crown is the nomi- 
native to the verb was secured; and chancellor is the nominative 
case absolute, 

Obs. 4. — A participle connected with a nominative absolute, 
has reference to such nominative: and it frequently happens, that 
participles in this connexion, may govern an objective case after 
them; as, "The sun dispersing the clouds, it began to grow 
warm." 

RULE XXVI. 

When an address is made to a person, or to a thing 
personified, the noun or pronoun is put in the nomina- 
tive case independent: as, "O, house of Israel !" — "O 
king, live for ever!"-- -"Rabbi, Rabbi!"— -"Yes, Sir, I 
will go," — "Let me ask you one question, Sir Harry." 
— "It must be so, Plato, thou reasonest well." — "O, 
thou man of God." 

Obs. 1. — When, for the sake of emphasis, a noun or a pronoun 
is abruptly introduced by pleonasm, it may be said to be in the 




Bible. 

Obs. 2. — When a noun is used as a mere exclamation, without 
address, and without any other word, or words, expressed or im- 
plied, to give it construction, it may be referred to this rule; as, 

"Oh! deep enchanting prelude to repose!"— Campbell. 

Obs. 3.— All nouns preceded by an article, are in the third 
person; and in exclamatory phrases, such nouns sometimes ap- 
pear to have no determinable construction: as, "O the depth of 
the riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God.*' — Rom. 
xi. 33. 

Obs. 4. — The case of nouns used in exclamations, or in mot- 
toes and abbreviated sayings, often depends, or may be conceiv- 
ed to depend, on something understood; and, when their con- 
struction can be satisfactorily explained on the principle of ellip- 
sis, they are in neither the nominative case absolute, nor tho 
nominative independent. The following examples can, perhaps, 
be resolved in this manner, though the expressions will lose much 
of their vivacity:— "A horse! a horse! my kingdom Tor a horse!" 
—Shak. "Heaps upon heaps"— "Skin for skin"— An eye foi an 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

eye, and a tooth for a tooth"— "Day after day" — "World with* 
out end." — Bible. 

Obs. 5.— The nominative case absolute, in English, corres- 
ponds to the ablative absolute, in Latin; and the nominative case 
independent, in English, to the vocative case, in Latin. Tho 
terms absolute and independent have been employed in the preced- 
ing rules, chiefly for the sake of this distinction. 

RULE XXVII. 

To express a future action or event, the words when, 
before, after, till, until, as soon as, and (sometimes) if 9 
govern the Subjunctive mood: as, "When he arrives 
he will hear the news." — "He will hear the news fee* 
fore he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at farthest; 
soon after he arrives." — "When kings and ministers are 
forgotten, when the force and direction of personal satire 
is no longer understood, and when measures are only 
felt in their remotest consequences, this book will, I 
believe, be found to contain principles worthy to be 
transmitted to posterity." — Junius. "If Junius lives, 
you shall be reminded of it." — Idem. "It is not of such 
corrigible stuff that we should hope for any amendment 
in him, before he has accomplished the destruction of his 
country . ' '—Idem. 

Note l.—The indicative mood is often used subjunctively; as, 
"When kings and ministers shall be for gotten," &e.— "before ho 
sliall have accomplished the destruction of his country," &c. 

Obs Where no great nicety is required, the first-future tenso 

and the second-future tense, are often indiscriminately employed, 
both in the indicative and subjunctive moods; or rather, the first- 
future is frequently used instead of the second-future. 

RULE XXVIII. 

A future contingency is elegantly fc expressed by the el- 
lipticals future: as, "If thou forsake him, he will 
cast thee off forever." — "He will not be pardoned, un- 
less he repent" 

Obs.— The conjunctions if, though, lest, unless, except, and 
whether, in formal compositions, generally require the elliptical 
future, when both futurity and contingency are implied. But in 
familiar writing and conversation, they are usually followed by 
the Subjunctive mood. 



SYNTAX. 123 

Note 1.— A mere supposition, with indefinite time, 19 best 
expressed by a verb in the Subjunctive, present: as, "If it were 
not so, I would have told you." — "If he took exercise, he would 
enjoy better health." 

Note 2.— A conditional circumstance assumed as a fact, re- 
quires the Indicative mood: as, "Though he is poor, ho is con- 
tented.* ' 

GENERAL RULE OF SYNTAX. 

In the formation of sentences, the consistency and 
adaptation of all the words should be carefully observ- 
ed; and a regular, clear, and correspondent construc- 
tion should be preserved throughout. 

Obs. 1. — The General Rule of Syntax, being designed to meet 
every possible form of error in construction, necessarily includes 
all the particular rules and notes. It is too broad to convey very 
definite instruction, and ought not to be applied where a special 
rule or note is applicable. A few examples, not properly coming 
under any other head, will serve to show its use and application: 
such examples are given in the false syntax below; and are de* 
signed for oral correction, 

Obs. 2. — In the foregoing pages, the principles of syntax, or 
tanstruction, are supposed to be pretty fully developed; but there 
may be in composition many errors of such a nature that no ru3e 
of grammar can show what should be substituted. The greater 
the inaccuracy, the more difficult the correction; because the sen- 
tence may require a change throughout. Thus, the following 
definition, though very short, is a fourfold solecism: "Number is 
the consideration of an object, as one or more.*' — Murray. This 
sentence, though written by one grammarian, and copied by 
twenty others, cannot be corrected but by changing every word 
in it: but this will of course destroy its identity, and form anoth- 
er sentence, not an amendment. It is unfortunate for youth, that 
a number of these incorrigible sentences might be culled from 
eur grammars. 

FALSE SYNTAX 
UNDER THE GENERAL RULE. 

If I can contribute to your and my country's glory..— Golds. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun your has not a clear and re- 
gular construction. But, according to the General Rule of Syn- 
tax, "In the formation of sentences, the consistency and adapta- 
tion of all the words should be carefully observed; and a regular, 
clear, and correspondent construction should be preserved 
throughout. " The sentence, having a double meaning, may be 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

corrected in two ways, thus; If I can contribute to our country** 
glory — or, If I can contribute to your glory and that of my coun- 
try.] 

Is there, then, more than one true religion? 

The laws of Lycurgus but substituted insensibility to enjoy 
ment. — Goldsmith. 

The young bird raising its open mouth for food, is a natural in* 
dication of corporeal want.— Cardell. 

There is much of truth in the observation of Ascham. — Id. 

This library exceeded half a million volumes.— -Id. 

The Coptic alphabet was one of the latest formed of any. 

To perceive nothing, or not to perceive, is the same. 

The king of France or England, was to be the umpire. 

He may be said to have saved the life of a citizen; and, con» 
•tquently, entitled to the reward. 

Give no more trouble than you can possibly help. 

It requires few talents to which most men arc not born, or at 
least, may not acquire. 

The Greeks fearing to be surrounded on all sides, wheeled 
scout and halted, with the river on their backs. — Golds. 

EXAMPLES FOR PARSING. 

In which are exemplified nearly all the Observations under tk* 
Rules of Syntax and the Notes, 

Lesson I. 

The philosopher, the saint, or the hero — the wise, the good, or 
the great man — very often lies hid and concealed in a plebeian, 
which a proper education might have disinterred and brought to 
light. — Addison. 

The darker the ignorance, the more praise to the sage who dis- 
pels it;— the deeper the prejudice, [the] more fame to the courage 
which braves it. — A Few Days in Athens. 

The approbation of our familiars, who are with us in our se- 
cret hours, [who] hear our private converse, [who] know the 
kabits of our lives and the bent of our dispositions, ought to be 
far more triumphant and pleasing to us, than the shouts of a mul- 
titude.— Idem. 

Ah! my sons, here is indeed a pain, zpain that cuts into the 

tout. He who feels not the loss, has never felt the possession.— 

See the price of a friend in the duties we render him, and tho 
sacrifices we make to him, and which, in making [them], we 
count not sacrifices, but pleasures!— Ol what a treasure is that 
for which we do so much! And is it forbidden us to mourn itf 
k>ss1 If it be, the power is not with us to obey.— Idem. 

Were our body never subject to sickness, we might be insensi- 
felo to the joy of health: were our friendship not threatened witk 
interruption, it might want much of its tenderness,*— itf*?»* 



SYNTAX. 131 

The muses Fortune's fickle smile deride, 

Nor ever bow the knee to Mammon's fane. — Beattie. 

The happier reign, the sooner it begins; 

Reign then; what canst thou better do the while? — Milton. 

Lesson if. 

Mercy and Truth are met together; Righteousness and React 
have kissed each other. 

In vain do they worship me, teaching for doctrines the com- 
mandments of men. 

Knowest thou not this of old, since man was placed upon th« 
*sarth, that the triumphing of the wicked is short, and the joy of 
the hypocrite but for a moment? 

They shall every man turn to his own people, and flee every 
&ne into his own land. 

Wherefore ye needs must be subject, not only for wrath, but 
also for conscience' sake. 

But Peter continued knocking; and when they had opened the 
door, and saw him, they were astonished. 

Then the king f Babylon's army besieged Jerusalem: and 
Jeremiah the Prophet was shut up in the court of tiie prison 
which was in the king of JadaK s house. 

/ Tertius, who wrote this epistle, salute you in the Lord. 

The new moons and sabbaths, the calling of assemblies^ I 
•innot away with: it is iniquity, even the solemn meeting. 

Each moss, each shell, each crawling insect holds 
A rank important in th« pran of Him 
Who franTd this scale of being. 

Lesson III. 

The rudiments of every language, therefore, must be givei 
ms a task, not as an amusement. — Goldsmith. 

Time we ought to consider as a sacred trust, committed to us 
by God, of which we are now the depositaries, and [of which] 
ja, e are to render an account at the Lust.— Blair. 

Thus justice, properly speaking, is the only virtue; and all the 
rest iiave their origin in \l.-r- Gold smith. 

To teach men to be orators, is little less than to teach them u 
he poets. 

Lysippus is told that his banker asks a debt of forty pounds, 
zni that it distressed acquaintance petitions for the same sum. 
He gives it, without hesitating, to the la tier; for he demands as 
u favour what the former requires as a debt. — Goldsmith. 

The laws of eastern hospitality allowed them to enter, mid 
the master welcomed them, like a man liberal and wealth). 
lie was skilful enough in appearances soon to discern that they 
were no common guests; and spread his table with magnificence, 
■•* Dta Johnson, 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The year before, he had so used the matter, thai, what by force, 
what by policy, he had taken from the Christians above 'thirty 
small castles. — Knolits. 

The tear that gathered in his eye, 

He left the mountain breeze to dry. — W a Scott. 

Lesson IV. 

When the student has thoroughly drilled himself in the Greek 
grammar, he may proceed to the study of Dalzel's Collectanea 
Graeca Minora; a work of modest pretensions, but of transcen- 
dent merit. — Systematic Education, 

Till he has formed a tolerably familiar acquaintance with the 
Greek radicals, he will find Hedericus' Lexicon the best adapted 
to the exigencies of the general study of Greek authors.— Ibid. 

When he has read the historical extracts from Xenophon; he 
may, by way of variety, apply himself to the study of the poetic 
Collectanea. — Ibid. 

When he has carefully studied the extracts from the Odyssey, 
he will be well qualified, and, in all probability} inclined to read 
the Iliad.— Ifo'd 

When the first volume has been thoroughly digested, the student 
will be able with ease and pleasure to read Xenophon's Anabi- 
sis. — Ibid. 

I have dared to hope, that these reflections on the manner of 
teaching mathematics, will not be considered as destitute of use, 
but will meet the same judgment with the rest of my exertions. — 
Academician. 

Though the English language, in its formation, does not, per- 
haps, approach so near perfection as the Latin or Greek, yet ita 
construction is simple and elegant, and may be taught with the 
greatest precision. — See the Academician, p. 193. 

When our pupil has acquired a due facility in reading, the next 
step is to make him acquainted with the simplest definitions of 
grammar, and as he advances, we should enter more largely into 
the subject, teach him the power of words by their synonymes 
and by derivation, and exercise his judgment by the frequent in- 
version or transposition of sentences.— ^ica^emiewzn. 

When our pupil has acquired a competent knowledge of the 
principles of arithmetic, he may proceed to the study of algebra, 
which possesses nearly the same advantages, and, along with 
them, others conducive to a still higher degree of mental cul- 
ture. — Ibid. 

From the radical words civil and human, with the knowledge 
of the prefixes and affixes, he may readily form a number of 
words, and ail of them will be easily understood. — See the Aca- 

P£flIlCIAN, p. 194. 

When our pupil, therefore, has acquired a competent know- 
ledge of mathematics, let his attention bo directed to natural 
p h ilosop by . —Acadcmicia n . 



SYNTAX. 133 

Lesson V. 

Abstinence, if nothing more, is at least a cautions retreat from 
the utmost verge of permission, and confers that security which 
cannot be reasonably hoped by him that dares always to hover 
over the precipice of destruction, or delights to approach the 
pleasures which he knows it fatal lo partake. — Dr. Johnson. 

There is in human nature, as wc have before indicated, some- 
thing ferocious, that needs to be moderated, and restrained by res- 
pect for (he laws. 

He knows not how to fear, who dares to die. — Enfield's Speak- 
These are the honours I boast of; not left me by inheritance, 
as theirs; hut earned by Xo<\, by abstinence, by valour, amidst 
eiouds of dust, and seas of blood; scenes of action, where thos.i 
effeminate Patricians, who endeavour, by indirect means, to de- 
preciate me in your esteem, hare never dared to sh$io their face*, — 
Tr. of SallusL 

Amidst the clamour of exulting joys, 
Which triumph forces from the patriot heart, 
Grksf dares to mingle her soul-piercing voice, 
And quells the raptures which from pleasure start. 

Gold » milk 

But I am now convinced, and none will dare 
Within thy labours to pretend a share. — MarvelL 

Vice is a monster of such hideous mierv, 

As to be hated, needs but is be seen: 

Yet, seen too oft, familiar with her face,, 

We first endure— then pity — then embrace. — Pope. 

Extracts from 8praguc's Centennial Obi, 

With streaming eye, yet steadfast heart, 
Even from that land they dared t* part. 

A fearful p3rt they trod, 
And dared a fearful doom; 
To build an altar to their God, 
And find a quiet tomb. 

One dared with him to burst the knot 
That bound her to her eative spot. 
12* 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PART IV. 

PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of punctuation, utterance, fi- 
gures, and versification. 

PUNCTUATION: 

Punctuation is the art of dividing composition, 
by points, or stops, for the purpose of showing 
more clearly the sense and relation of the words, 
and of noting the different pauses and inflections 
required in reading. 

The following are the principal points, or marks; 
the Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], 
the Period [.], the Dash [ — ], the Note of Interro- 
gation [?], the Note of Exclamation [!], and the 
Parenthesis [()]. 

Obs» The pauses that are made in the natural flow of speech, 
have, in reality, no definite and invariable proportions. The fol- 
lowing, however, may serve as a general direction. 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause; the 
Semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the 
Colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and 
the Period, or Full Stop, a pause double that of 
the colon. The pauses required by the other 
marks, vary according to the structure of the sen- 
tence, and their place in it. They may be equal 
to any of the foregoing. 

OF THE COMMA. 

The Comma is used to separate those parts of 
a sentence, which are so nearly connected in 
sense, as to be only one degree removed from 
that close connexion which admits no point. 

RULE I. — SIMPLE SENTENCE. 

„ A simple sentence does not, in general, admit tht 



PROSODY. 135 

<jomma: as, "The weakest reasoners are the most posi- 
tive." 

Exception, When the nominative in a long simple 
sentence is accompanied hy inseparable adjuncts, a com- 
ma should be placed before the verb: as, 4< The assem- 
blage of these vast bodies, is divided into different 
•ystems." 

RULE II. SIMPLE MEMBERS. 

The simple members of a compound sentence, wheth- 
er successive or involved, elliptical or complete, ar# 
generally divided by the comma; as, 

"He speaks eloquently, and he acts wisely.'* 

"The man, when he saw this, departed." 

u It may, and it often does happen." 

"That life is long, which answers life's great end." 

"As thy days, so shall thy strength be." 

Exception 1. When a relative immediately follows 
its antecedent, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the 
comma should not be introduced before it; as, "The 
things which are seen, are temporal; but the things which 
are not seen, are eternal." — 2 Cor iv. 18. 

Exception 2. When the simple members are short, 
and closely connected by a conjunction or a conjunctive 
abverb, the comma is generally oua nitted; as, "Infamy 
is worse than death." — u Let him tell ine whether the 
auraber of the stars be even or odd." 

RULE III. MORE THAN TWO WORDS. 

When more than two words or terms are connected 
in the same construction, by conjunctions expressed or 
understood, the comma should be inserted after every 
one of them but the last; and if they are nominatives 
before a verb, the comma should follow the last also; as, 

"Who, to the enraptur'd heart, and ear, and eye, 
Teach beauty, virtue, truth, and love, and melody/' 



1S6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

<8 Ah! what avails * * * * 
All that art, fortune, enterprise, can bring, 
If envy, scorn, remorse, or pride, the bosom wring*!" 

£t Women are soft, mild, pitiful, and flexible; 
Thou stern, obdurate, flinty, rough, remorseless." 

"She plans, provides, expatiates, triumphs there." 

Obs. — Two or more words are in the same construction, when 
they have a common dependence on some other term, and are 
parsed alike. 

RULE IV. — ONLY TWO WORDS. 

When only two words or terms are connected by a 
conjunction, they should not be separated by the com- 
ma; as, "Despair and anguish fled the struggling soul." 
— Golds. 

Exception 1. When the two words connected have 
several adjuncts, the comma is inserted; as, "Honesty in 
his dealings, and attention to business, procured him 
both esteem and wealth." 

Exception 2. When the two words connected are 
emphatically distinguished, the comma is inserted; as, 

'Liberal, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand." — Beattie. 

" Tis certain he could write, and cipher too."— Golds. 

Exception 3. When there is merely an alternative 
of words, the comma is inserted; as, "We saw a large 
opening, or inlet." 

Exception 4. When the conjunction is understood, 
the comma is inserted; as, 

"She thought the isle that gave her birth, 
The sweetest, wildest land on earth." — Hogg. 

RULE V. WORDS IN PAIRS. 

When successive words are joined in pairs by con- 
junctions, they should be separated in pairs by the com- 
ma; as, "Interest and ambition, honour and shame, 
friendship and enmity, gratitude and revenge, are the 
prime movers in public transactions/' 



PROSODY. U7 

RULE VI. WORDS ABSOLUTE. 

Words put absolute, or independent, should, with 
their adjuncts, be set off by the comma, as, "The prince, 
his father being dead, succeeded." — "This done, we 
parted. " — "Zacheus, make haste and come down." — 
"His pr&tor ship in Sicily, what did it produce?" 

RULE VII, WORDS IN APPOSITION. 

Words put in apposition, (especially if they have ad- 
juncts,) are generally set off by the comma; as, "He 
that now calls upon thee, is Theodore, the hermit of 
Tenerife." 

Exception 1. When several words are used as one 
eompound name, the comma is not inserted; as, "Samu- 
el Johnson." — Publius Gavius Cosanus." 

Exception 2. When a common and a proper name 
are closely united, the comma is not inserted; as, "The 
brook Kidron." — "The river Don,"— "The empress 
Catharine." — "Paul the Apostle." 

Exception 3. When a pronoun is added to another 
word merely for emphasis and distinction, the comma 
is not inserted: as, "Ye men of Athens." — "1 myself." 
"Thou flaming minister." — ''You princes." 

Exception 4. When a name acquired by some ac- 
tion or relation, is put in apposition with a preceding 
noun or pronoun, the comma is not inserted; as, "I made 
the ground my bed," — "To make him king." — "Whom 
they revered as God/;— "With modesty thy guide" 

RULE VIII. ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives., when something depends on them, or 
when they have the import of a dependent clause, should* 
with their adjuncts, be set off by the comma; as, 

—"Among the roots 

Of hazel, pendent oer the plaintive stream, 
They frame the first foundation of their domes." — - 

Thorn. 

* * —"Up springs the lark, 

ShrilUvoic'd and loud, the messenger of morn." — Id. 



ia«r ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Exception. When an adjective immediately follow* 
its noun, and is taken in a restrictive sense, the comma 
should not be used before it; as, 

<4 On the coast averse from entrance. ' — Milton. 

RULE IX. VERB UNDERSTOOD. 

Where a verb is understood, a comma is generally 
required: as, "From law arises security; from security, 
curiosity; from curiosity, knowledge." 

RULE X. THE INFINITIVE. 

The infinitive mood, when it follows a verb from 
which it must be separated, or when it depends on 
something remote or understood, is generally set off by 
the comma; as, "His delight was, to assist the distress* 
&d." — "To conclude, 1 was reduced to beggary," 

4i The Governor of all — has interposed. 

Not seldom, his avenging arm, to smite 

The injurious trampler upon nature's faw/'-Cowpir. 

RULE XI. PARTICIPLES. 

Participles, when something depends on them, when 
they have the import of a dependent clause, or when 
they relate to something understood , should, with their 
adjuncts, beset off by the comma; as, 

"Young Edwin, lighted by the evening star. 
Ling 1 ring and listening, wander'd down the vale." 

"United, we stand; divided, we fall." 

"Properly speaking , there is no such thing as chance/ 4 

Exception. When a participle immediately followi 
its noun and is taken in a restrictive sense^ the comma 
should not be used before it; as, 

J 'A man renown'dfor repartee, 
Will seldom scruple to make free 
With friendship's finest feeling.''— Cowper. 



PROSODY. I;* 

RULE XII. ADVERBS" 

Adverbs, when they break the connexion of a simple 
sentence, or when they have not a close connexion with 
some particular word in the context, should be set off 
by the comma; as, ''We must not, however, confound 
this gentleness with the artificial courtesy of the world." 
"Besides, the mind must be employed." — Most unques- 
tionably, no fraud was equal to all this. ,r 

RULE XIII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions, when they are separated from the prin- 
cipal clause that depends on them, or when they intro- 
duce an example, are generally set off by the comma; 
as, "But, by a timely call upon Religion # the force of 
Habit was eluded." — Johnson, 

RULE XIV. PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions and their objects, when they break the 
connexion of a simple sentence, or when they do not 
closely follow the words on which they depend, are gen- 
erally set off by the comma; as, "Fashion is, for the 
most part, nothing but the ostentation of riches.* — "By 
reading, we add the experience of others to our own, ' 

RULE XV. INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are sometimes set off by the comma; a« ? 
"For, lo, I will call all the families of the kingdoms of 
the north." — Jeremiah i. 15. 

RULE XVI. WORDS REPEATED. 

A word emphatically repeated, should be set off by 
the comma; as, "Happy, happy, happy pair!" — "Ah! 
no, no, no." 

RULE XVII. DEPENDENT QUOTATION. 

A quotation or observation, when it is introduced by 
a rerb, (as say, reply, and the like,) is generally separa- 
ted from the rest of the sentence by the comma; as, 
¥ «The book of nature,' said he, 'is open before thee." 7 
"I say unto all, Watch." 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used to separate those parts 
of a compound sentence, which are neither so 
closely connected as those which are distinguish- 
ed by the comma, nor so little dependent as thoss 
which require the colon. 

RULE I. COMPOUND MEMBERS. 

When several compound Members, some or all of 
which require the comma, are constructed into a period, 
they are generally separated by the semicolon, as, "In 
the regions inhabited by angelic natures, unmingled fe- 
licity forever blooms; joy flows there with a perpetual 
and abundant stream, nor needs any mound to check 
its course." — Carter. 

RULE II. SIMPLE MEMBERS. 

When several simple members, each of which i» 
complete in sense, are constructed into a period; if they 
require a pause greater than that of the comma, they 
are usually separated by the semicolon: as, "Straws 
swim upon the surface; but pearls lie at the bottom." 

"A longer care man's helpless kind demands; 
That longer care contracts more lasting bands." — 

Pope. 

RULE III. APPOSITION, &C. 

Words in apposition, or in any other construction, 
if they require a pause greater than that of the comma, 
and less than that of the colon, may be separated by 
the semicolon: as, "There are five moods; the infini- 
tive, the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and 
the imperative." 

OF THE COLON. 

The Colon is used to separate those parts of a 
compound sentence, which are neither so closely 
connected as those which are distinguished by the 



PROSODY. HI 

semicolon, nor so little dependent as those which 
require the period. 

RULE I. ADDITIONAL REMARK. 

When the preceding clause is complete in itself, but 
is followed by some additional lemark or illustration, 
the colon is generally used: as, "Avoid evil doers: in 
such society an honest man may become ashamed of 
himself." "See that moth fluttering incessantly rouud 
the candle; man of pleasure, behold thy image.'* 

RULE II. GREATER PAUSE. 

When the semicolon has been introduced, and a still 
gTeater pause is required within the period, the colon 
should be employed: as, "Princes have courtiers, and 
merchants have partners; the voluptuous have compan- 
ions, and the wicked have accomplices: none but the 
virtuous can have friends." 

RULE III. — INDEPENDENT QUOTATION. 

A quotation introduced without dependence on a 
verb or a conjunction, is generally preceded by the co- 
lon: as, "In his last moments, he uttered these words* 
'I fall a sacrifice to sloth and luxury.' " 

OF THE PERIOD. 

The Period, or Full Stop, is used to mark an 
entire and independent sentence, whether simple 
or compound. 

RULE I. DISTINCT SENTENCES. 

When a sentence is complete in respect to senee, and 
independent in respect to construction, it should be 
marked with the period: as, "Every deviation from 
truth, is criminal. Abhor a falsehood. Let your worde 
be ingenious. (cincerity possesses the most powerful 
charm. " 

13 



14S ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

RULE II. — ALLIED SENTENCES. 

The period is often employed between two sentences 
which have a general connexion, expressed by a per- 
sonal pronoun, a conjunction, or a conjunctive adverb; 
as, "The selfish man languishes in his narrow circle of 
pleasures. They are confined to what affects his owa 
interests. He is obliged to repeat the same gratifiea- 
tions ? till they become insipid. But the man of virtu- 
ous sensibility moves in a wider sphere of felicity."— 

Blair. 

RULE III. — ABBREVIATIONS. 

The period is generally used after abbreviations; arg, 
A. D., Pro tern., Ult., i. e. 

OF THE DASH. 

The Dash is used to denote an unexpected or 
emphatic pause of variable length. 

RULE I. — ABRUPT PAUSE. 

A sudden interruption or transition should be mark- 
ed with the dash; as, " '1 must inquire into the affair* 
and if— 4 And if!'' interrupted the farmer." 

"Here lies the great — false marble, where? 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here."---Fowng-. 

RULE II.— EMPHATIC PAUSE, 

To mark a considerable pause, greater than ffco 
structure of the sentence, or the points inserted, would 
seem to require, the dash may be employed; as, 

"And now they part — to meet no more." 
"Revere thyself; — and yet thyself despise." 
"Behold the picture! — Is it like? — Like whemf 

OF THE NOTE OF INTERROGATION. 

The Note of Interrogation is used to designate 
& question. 



PftOSODY. 1*3 

RULE I.— QUESTIONS DIRECT. 

Questions expressed directly as such should always 
be followed by the note of interrogation; as, 
"In life, can love be bought with gold? 
Are friendship's pleasures to be soldi" — Johnson. 

RULE II — QUESTIONS UNITED 

When two or more questions are united in one com- 
poand sentence, the comma or semicolon is sometime? 
placed between them, and the note of interrogation, af- 
ter the last only; as, 

'•'Truths would you teach, or save a sinking land! 
All fear, none aid you, and few understand. "—Pope, 

RULE III. — QUESTIONS INDIRECT. 

Vvhan a question is mentioned, but not put directly 
as a question, it loses both the quality and the sign of 
interrogation; as, '-The Cyprians asked me why I wept.* 1 

OF THE NOTE OF EXCLAMATION. 

The Note of Exclamation is used to denote 
wme strong or sudden emotion of the mind* 

RULE I. — INTERJECTIONS, &.C. 

Interjections and other expressions of great emotion, 
are generaliy followed by the note of exclamation; as, 

*OJ let me listen to the words of life!" 

RULE II.— EARNEST ADDRESS. 

After an earnest address or invocation, the note of 
exclamation is usually preferred to the comma; as, 
"Whereupon, O king Agrippa! I was not disobedient 
to the heavenly vision." 

RULE III —EXCLAMATORY QUESTION. 

A question uttered with vehemence, and without 
reference to an answer, should be followed by the hot* 
of exclamation; as, "How madly have i talked!"- -Totaif. 



H4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

OF THE PARENTHESIS. 

The Parenthesis is used to distinguish a clause 
that is hastily thrown in between the parts of a 
sentence to which it does not properly belong; as, 

"To others do (the law is not severe) 
What to thyself thqji wishestto be done.'*— Beattie. 

Ob3.— -The incidentil clause should be uttered i;i a lower tone, 
and faster than the principal sentence. It always require a pause 
»« great as that of a comma, or greater. 

RULE I.— INCIDENTAL CLAUSE. 

A clause that breaks the unity of a sentence too much 
to be incorporated with it, and only such, should be en- 
closed in a parenthesis; as, 

"Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below,"— Pope. 

RULE II.— INCLUDED POINT. 

The parenthesis does not supersede the other stops; 
it terminates with a pause equal to that which precedes 
it; and it should include the same point, except when 
the sentences differ in form: as, 

Man's thirst of happiness declares it is: 
(For nature never gravitates to nought;) 
That thirst unquench'd, declares it is not here."— 

Young. 
"Night visions may befriend: (as sung above:) 
Our waking dreams are fatal. — How I dreamt 
Of things impossible! (could sleep do more?) 
Of joys perpetual in perpetual change!" — Young-. 

OF THE OTHER MARKS. 

There are also other marks, that are occasion- 
ally used for various purposes, as follow: 

I. ['] The Apostrophe denotes either the possessive 
case, or the elision of one or more letters of a word; as, 
The girVs regard to her parents' advice; — 'gan y lov'd f 



PROSODY. 145 

e'eti thro': for began, loved, even, through. 

2. [.] The Hyphen connects the parts of compound 
words; as, ever-living. Placed at the end of a line, it 
shows that one or more syllables of a word are carried 
forward to the next line. 

3. [ .. ] The Diaresis, placed over the latter of two 
vowels, shows that thay are not a dipthong; as aerial. 

4. ['] The Acute Accent marks the syllable which re- 
quires the piincipal stress in pronunciation, as, ^tioi, 
equal'ity. It is sometime used in opposition to the grave 
accent, to distinguish a close vowel, or to denote the 
rising inflection of the voice. 

5. [*] The Grave Accent is used in opposition to th* 
acute, to distinguish an open vowel, or to denote tha 
falling inflection of the voice. 

6. [-] The Circumflex generally denotes the broad 
sound of a vowel; as, eclat. 

7. [~] The Breve is used to denote either a close 
vowel or a syllable of short quantity. 

8. p] The M.icron is used to denote either an open 
vowel or a syllable of long quantity. 

9. [ ] or [****] The ellipsis denotes the omis- 
sion of some letters or words; as, K—g, for king, 

10. [a] The Caret shows where to insert words ©r 
letters that have been accidentally omitted. 

11. I M The Brace serves to unite a triplet, or to 

connect several terms with something to which they are 
all related. 

12. [§] The Section marks the smaller divisions of a 
book or chapter. 

13. [IF] The Paragraph (chiefly used in the Bible) 
denotes the commencement of a new subject* The 
parts of discourse, which are called paragraphs, are* in 
general, sufficiently distinguished, by beginning a new 
line, and carrying the first word a little forwards or 
backwards. 

14. [*" "] The Quotation Points distinguish words 
that are taken from another author or speaker. A quo- 
tation within a quotation is marked with single points; 

13* 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

which, when both are employed, are placed within the 
others. % 

15. [[]] The Crotchets generally enclose some cor- 
rection or explanation, or the subject to be explained; 
as, "He [the speaker] was of a different opinion." 

16. [O^r] The Index points out something remarka- 
ble, 

17. [*] The Asterisk, [|] the Obelisk, and [||] the 
Parallels, refer to marginal notes. The letters of the 
alphabet, or the numerical figures, may be used for the 
same purpose. 

t$^~ For oral exercises in punctuation, the teacher may select 
any weil-pointed book, to which the foregoing rules and expla- 
nations may be applied by the pupil.] 

UTTERANCE. 

Utterance is the art of vocal expression. It 
includes the principles of pronunciation and elo- 
cution. 

OF PRONUNCIATION. 

Pronunciation, as distinguished from elocution, 
is the utterance of words taken separately. 

Pronunciation requires a knowledge of the just 
powers of the letters in all their combinations, and 
of. the force and seat of the accent. 

T. The Just Powers of the letters, are those sounds 
which are given to them hy the hest readers. 

II. Accent is the peculiar stress which we lay upon 
some particular syllable of a word, whereby that sylla- 
ble is distinguished from the rest, as, gram-mar, gram* 
ma-ri-an. 

Every word of more than one syllable, has one of its 
syllables accented. 

When the word is long, for the sake of harmony or 
distinctness, we often give a secondary, or less forcible 
accent to another syllable; as, to the last of iem-per-a* 
ture, and to the second of in-dem-ni-ji-ca-tion* 
i A full and open pronunciation of the long vowei 
Triads, a clear articulation of the consonants, a forcible 



PROSODY. 147 

and well-placed accent, and a distinct utterance of the 
unaccented syllables, distinguish the elegant speaker. 

[£3^ For a full explanation of the principles of pronunciation, 
the learner is referred to Walker's Critical Pronouncing Die- 
tionary.] 

OF ELOCUTION. 

Elocution is the utterance of words that are ar- 
ranged into sentences, and form discourse. 

Elocution requires a knowledge, and right ap- 
pliction, of emphasis, pauses, inflections, and 
tones. 

I. Emphasis is the peculiar stress which sve lay upon 
some particular word or words in a sentence, which are 
■thereby distinguished from the rest. 

II. Pauses are cessations in utterance, which serve 
equally to relieve the speaker, and to render language 
intelligible and pleasing. The duration of the pauses 
should be proportionate to the degree of connexion be- 
tween the parts of the discourse. 

III. Inflections are those peculiar variations of the hu- 
man voice, by which a continuous sound is made to pass 
from one note into an other. The passage of the voice 
from a lower to a higher or shriller note, is called the 
rising inflection. The passage of the voice from a higher 
to a lower or graver note, is called the falling inflection. 
These two opposite inflections may be heard in the fol- 
lowing examples: 1. the rising, "Do you mean to go?" 
2. the falling, ' ; When will you go?" 

Obs. — Questions that may be answered by yes or no) rcquice 
tiie rising inflection; those that demand any other answdf, must 
be uttered with the falling inflection. , rj 

IV. Tones are those modulations of the voice, which 
depend upon the feelings of the speaker. And it is -of 
the utmost importance, that they be natural, and adapt- 
ed to the subject and to the occasion: for upon them, irf 
a great measure, depends all that js pleasing or interest- 
ing in elocution. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



FIGURES. 

A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional devia- 
tion from the ordinary form, construction, or ap- 
plication, of words. There are, accordingly, fi- 
gures of Etymology, figures of Syntax, and figures 
of Rhetoric. When figures are judiciously em- 
ployed, they both strengthen and adorn express- 
ion. They occur more frequently in poetry than 
in prose; and several of them are merely poetic 
licenses. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional devia- 
tion from the ordinary form of a word. 

The principal figures of Etymology are eight; namely , 
M ph&r-e-sis, Pros-the-*is } Syn-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par~a- 
%0-ge, Di-cer-e-sis, Syn-cer-e sis, and Tmesis. 

J. Aplwzresis is the elision of some of the initial letters 
of a word; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'neath^ — for against, began, 
beneath. 

II. Prosthesis, is the prefixing of an expletive sylla- 
ble to a word, as, adown, oppaid, 6estrown, evanished.- — 
for down, paid, strown, vanished. 

III. Syncope is the elision of some of the middle let- 
ters of a word; as, med'eine, for medicine; se'nnight, for 
zsvennight. 

IV. Apocope is the elision of some of the final letters 
«f a word; as, tho\ for though. 

V. Paragoge is the annexing of an expletive syllable 
tQ a woid; as, zcithouten, for without, — deary, for dear. 

VI. Diazresis is die separating of two vowels that 
might form a dipt hong; as, cooperate. 

VII. Synceresis is the sinking of two syllables into ©n£ 
as, seest, for se'e'st. 

Obs — When a vowel is entirely suppressed in pronunciation, 
(whether retained in writing or not,) the consonants connected 
with it, fall into an other syllable; thus, tried, triest, loved or 



PROSODY. 149 

hit'd, lovut or hvst, are monosyllables; except in solemn dis- 
c-onrje, i:i whicii tha a is generally retained aud .nade vocal. 

VIII. Tmesis is the inserting of a word between tho 
parts of a compound; as, ''On which side soever,'— "7\> 
W ward"— li To God ward/* 

FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure of Syntax is aa intentional deviation 
from the ordinary cqnstriictioii of words. 

. The principal figures of Syntax are five; namely, El- 
Up.$is : Ple-o-nas;n } SyU!ep-sis, Kn-al-la-ge, and Hjper. 
ba-ton. 

I. Ellipsis i3 the omission of some words which are 
necessary to complete the construction, but not, to con- 
vey the meaning. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less el- 
liptical. ^ There may be an ellipsis of any of the parts 
of speech, or even of a whole clause; as, 

1. Of the Article; as, "A man and [a] woman." — 
"The day, [the] month, and [the] year." 

2. Of the JVbwi; as, "The common [law] and the 
statute law"— -The twelve [apostles]." — -One [book] 
of my books." — "A dozen [bottles] of wine. 

3. Of the Aljective; as. "A little boy dad [a Utile] 
girl." — "Much trouble and [much] time." 

4. Of the Ptmom; as, "i love [him] and [I] fear 
him." "The estates [which] we own." 

5. Of the Verb; as, "Who did this! L" [did it].— 
"To whom thus Eve, yet sinless" [spoke]* 

6. Of the Participle; as, "That [being] o'er, thev 
part." 

7. Of the Adverb; as, "He spoke [ruisely] and acted 
wisely." — ;i Exceedingly great and [exceedinstlii] power- 
ful." L ° JJ L 

8. Of the Conjunction; as, "The fruit of the spirit is 
lore, [and] joy, [and] pence, [and] long-suffering, [and] 
gentleness, [and] goodness, [and] faith, [and] meekness, 
[and] temperance."— Gal. v. 22. The repetition of the 
conjunction is called Polysyndeton; and the omission of 
it, Asyndeton, 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

9. Of the Preposition; as, " [On] this day."— " [In] 
next month/— "He departed [from] this life."— «Ho 
gave [to] me a book." — "To walk [through] a mile." 

10. Of the Interjection; as, "Oh! llie frailty, [Gbti] the 
wickedness of men!" 

11. Of a Clause; as, "It is our duly to show respect 
to the virtuous, and [it is our duty to show] deference 
to. our superiors." 

II. Pleonasm is the introducticn of superfluous words. 
This figure is allowable only, when, ia animated dis- 
course, it abruptly introduces an emphatic word, or re- 
peats an idea to impress it more strongly; as, u Be that 
hath ears to hear, let him hear!"— "AH ye inhabitants 
of the world, and dwellers on the earth!' 1 — "There shall 
not be left one stone upon an other that shall not be 
thrown down." — "I know thee who thou art." — Bible. 
A Pleonasm is sometimes impressive and elegant, but 
an unemphatic repetition of the same idea, is one of th# 
worst faults of bad writing. 

III. Syllepsis is agreement formed according to the 
figurative sense of a word, or the mental conception of 
the thing spoken of, and not according to the literal or 
common use of the term; it is therefore, in general, con- 
nected with some figure of rhetoric: as, "The Word 
was made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld 
his glory."— John, i. 14. "Then Philip went down to 
the city of Samaria, and preached Christ unto them."— 
Acts,\u\. o. "While Evening draws her crimson curtain 
round." — Thomson. 

IV. Enallage is the use of one part of speech, or of 
one modification, for an other. This figure borders 
closely upon solecism;* and, for the stability of the Ian- 

* Devotion;; pi this kind are, in general, to be cousidered sol- 
scions; otherwise, the rules of grammar would be of no use or 
authority. JJespaider, an aj.cienZ Latin grammarian, gave an 
improper latitude to this figure, under the name of Anliptosis; 
and Bthourt and others extended it still further. But Sanctius 
»ays, Antiptosi granimaticoruin nihil impcritius, quod figmenium 
si essct vennn, frustra gm&reretur, qutm auum verba regerenL 
And the 'Messieurs De Fort lioyaii eject the figure altogether. 
There are, however, some changes of this kind, which the gram- 
marian is not competent to condemn, though they do not accord 
with tkg ordinury principles of construction. 



PROSODY. Ui 

gtiage, it should be sparingly indulged. There are, 
however, several forms of it which can appeal to authors 
ty: as, 

"You know that you are Brutus that say this." — Shah 

"They fall successive [ly], and succsssive [ly] rise.*' 

"Than whom [who] none higher Fat." — Milton. 

"Sure some disaster has befell" .[befallen] — Gay. 

"So furious was that onset's shock, 
Destruction's gates at once unlock — Hogg. 

V. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words; as, "He 
wanders earth arouud>" — "Rings the world with the 
vain stir." — Cowper. This figure is mnch employed in 
poetry. A judicious use of it confers harmony, variety, 
strength, and vivacity upon composition. But car* 
should be taken lest it produce ambiguity or obscurity. 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation 
from the ordinary application of words. Figure* 
of this kind are commonly called Tropes. 

Numerous departures from perfect simplicity of die* 
tion, occur in almost every kind of composition. They 
are mostly founded on some similitude or relation of 
things, which, by the power of imagination, is render- 
ed conducive to ornament or illustration, 

The principal figures of Rhetoric are fourteen; name- 
ly, Sim-i'le, MeUa-phor, Al-le-go-ry, JMe-toti-y-my, Sy- 
ncc-do-che, Hy-per-bo-le, Vis-ion , A-pos-tro-phe, Per-son- 
i-H-ca-lion^ Er-o-te-sis, Ec-pho-ne-sis, An-tilh-e-$i$, Cli- 
truix, and I-ro-ny. 

I. A Simile is a simple and express comparison; and 
is generally introduced by like, as, or so : as, 

"At first like thunder's distant tone, 
The rattling din came rolling on. — Hogg, 

"Man, like the generous vine, supported lives; 

The strength he gains, is from th' embrace he give*" 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

II. A Metaphor is a figure that expresses the resem- 
blance of two objects by applying either the name, or 
some attribute, adjunct, or action, of the one, directly 
to the other; as 5 

"His eye was morning's brightest ray." — Hogg. 
*An angler in the tides of fame.'' — Idem. 
"Beside him sleeps the warrior's bow."— Langhcrne. 
"Wild fancies in 4ns" moody brain, 
GamboVd unbridled and unbound" — Hogg, 

"Speechless, and fix'd in all the death of wo." — Them. 

III. An Allegory is a continued narration of fictitious 
events, designed to represent and illustrate important 
realities. Thus the Psalmist represents the Jewish na- 
tion under the symbol of a vine: "Thou hast brought a 
vine out of Egypt: thou hast cast out the heathen and 
planted it. Thou pjeparedst room before it, and didst 
cause it to take deep root; and it filled the land. Th© 
hills were covered with the shadow of it, and the bough* 
thereof were like the goodly cedars." — Ps. lxxx, l>. 

Oes. — The Allegory, agreeably to tlie foregoing definition of 
it, includes most of thcFe si niitit4id.es which in the Scriptures &re 
Gu\\ei\ parable?; it includes also tie better sort of faMes. The 
term allegory is sometimes applied to a trve history in which 
something else is mtencied, than i* contained in the words literal- 
ly taken. [See Gal. iv. 24.] In the Saipiwes, the ivxmfabh 

denotes an idle and groundless story* [fcee 1 Tim. iv. 1, and 

2 Pet. i. 16.] 

IV. A Metonymy is a change of names. It is found- 
ed on some such l elation as that of cause and effect, of 
subject and adjunct, of place and inhabitant, of container 
and thing contained, or ot sign and thing signified; as, 
"God is our salvation;" i. e. Saviour, — "He was the sigh 
of her secret soul;" i, e. the youth she loved. — "They 
•mote the city;" i. e. citizens. — "My son, give me thy 
heart;" i. e. affection. — "'I he sceptre shall not depart 
from Judah;" i. e. kingly power. 

V. Synecdoche is the naming of the whole for a part, 
or of a part for the whole; as, "This roof [i. e. house] 
protects you." — "Now the year [L e. summer] is beau- 
tiful." 



PROSODY. 

153 

Vi. Hyperbole is extravagant exaggeration, in which 
the imagination is indulged beyond the sobriety of truth: 
as, 

"The sky shrunk upward with unusual dread, 

And trembling Tiber div'd beneath his bed."-—Drydcn, 

VII. Vision, or Imagery, is a figure by which the 
speaker represents the objects of his imagination, as 
actually before his eyes and present to his senses; as, 

u i see the dagger- crest. of Mar! 

I see the Moray's silver star 

Wave o'er the cloud of Saxon war, 

That up the lake comes winding far!" — Scott. 

VIII. Apostrophe is a turning from the regular course 
of the subject, into an animated address; as, ''Death is 
swallowed up in victory. O Death! where is thy sting? 
O Grave! where is thy victory.?" — 1 Cor. xv. 54, 55. 

IX. Personification is a figure by which, in imagina- 
tion, we ascribe intelligence and personality to unintel- 
ligent beings or abstract qualities; as, 

"The Worm, aware of his intent, 

Harrangued him thus, right eloquent." — -Cowper. 

"Lo, steel-clad War his gorgeous standard rears!'' 

Rog„ 

"Hark! Truth proclaims, thy triumphs cease"—- Id. 

X. Erotesis is a ngure in which the speaker adopts 
the form of interrogation, not to express a doubt, but, 
in general, confidently to assert the reverse of what is 
asked; as, "Hast thou an arm like God? or canst thou 
thunder with a voice like him?"-- -Job xl. 9. "He that 
planted the ear, shall he not hear? he that formed the 
eye, shall he not see? — Ps. xciv. 9. 

XL Ecphonesis is apathetic exclamation, denoting 
some violent emotion of the mind, as, "O liberty!— O 
sound once delightful to every Roman ear! — O sacred 
privilege of Roman citizenship! — once sacred — now 
trampled upon!" — Cicero. "Q that I had wings like a 
14 



1J4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

dove! for then would I fly away, and be at rest!"— F*, 
It. 6. 

XII. Antithesis is a placing of things in opposition, 
to heighten their effect by contrast; as, 

''Contrasted faults through all their manners reign; 
Though poor, luxurious; though submissive, vain; 
Though grave, yet trifling; zealous^ yet untrue; 
And e'en in penance. planning sins anew."— Golds. 

XIII. Climax is a figure in which the sense is made 
lo advance by successive steps, to rise gradually to what 
is more and more important and interesting, or to des- 
cend to what is more and more minute and particular; 
as, "And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your 
faith, virtue; and to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge 
temperance; and to temperance, patience; and to pa- 
tience, godliness; and to godliness, brotherly kindness; 
and to brotherly kindness, charity."-— 2 Pet, i. 5. 

XIV. Irony is a figure in which the speaker sneer- 
ingly utters the direct reverse of what he intends shall 
be understood; as, "We have, to be sure, great reason 
to believe the modest man would not ask him for his 
debt; when he pursues his life."— Cicero. 



VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the art of arranging words into 
lines of correspondent length, so as to produce 
harmony by the regular alternation of syllables dif- 
fering in quantity. 

The Quantity of a syllable, is the relative portion of 
time occupied in uttering it. In poetry, every syllable 
is considered to be either long or short. A long sylla- 
ble is said to be equal to two short ones. 

Obs. 1.— The quantity of a syllable, does not depend on the 
sound of the vowel or dipthong, but principally on the degree of 
accentual force with which the syllable is uttered, whereby a 
greater or less portion of time is employed. The open vowel 
sounds are those which are the most easily protracted, yet they 
often occur in the shortest nnd feeblest syllables. 



PROSODY, 155 

Obs. 2. — Most monosyllables are variable, and may be made 
either long or short, as suits the rhythm. In words of greater 
length, the accented syllable is always long; and a syllable imme- 
diately before or after that which is accented, is always short. 

Rfiyme is a similarity of spund, between the last syl- 
lables of different lines. 

Obs. — The principal rhyming syllables are almost always long. 
Double rhyme adds one short syllable; triple rhyme, two. Such 
syllables are redundant, in iambic and anapaestic verses. 

Blank -verse is verse without rhyme. 

A line of poetry consists of successive combinations 
of syllables, called feet. A poetic foot consists either 
of two or of three syllables. 

The principal English feet are the Iambus, the Tro- 
chee, the Anapoest, and the Dactyl. 

1 . The Iambus is a poetic foot consisting of a short 
syllable and a long one; as, betray, confess. 

2. The Trochee is a poetic foot consisting of a long 
syllable and a short one; as, hateful, pettish. 

o. The Anapoest is a poetic foot consisting of two 
short syllables and one long one; as, contravene, ac- 
quiesce, 

4. The Dactyl is a poetic foot consisting of one long 
syllable and two short ones; as, labourer, possible. 

We have, accordingly, four kinds of verse, or poetic 
measure; Iambic, Trochaic, Anapotsiic, and Dactylic. 

Obs.— The more pure these several kinds are preserved, the 
more complete is the chime of the verse. But poets generally 
indulge some variety; not so much, however, as to confound the 
drift of the rhythmical pulsations. 

Scanning is the dividing of verses into the feet which 
compose them. 

Obs. — When a syllable is wanting, the verse rs said to be 
tatalectic; when the measure is exact, the line is acatahctic; 
when there is a redundant syllable, it forms hyper meter. 

I. OF IAMBIC VERSE. 

In Iambic verse, the stress is laid on the even sylla- 
bles. It consists of the following measures: 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. Iambic of Seven feet. 

The Lord j d&scen]ded from ( above, j and bow'd { 

the heavjens high. 
Modern poets leave divided this kind of verse, into 
alternate lines of four and of three feet: thus, 
O blind | to each | indullgent aim 

Of pow'r [ supremely wise, 
Who fanjcy hap|piness | in aught 
The hand | of heav'n | denies! 

i\ Iambic of Six feet, or Hexameter. 

Thy realm [ forevjer lasts, | thy own j Messi|ah reigns 
This is the Alexandrine; it is seldom used except to 
complete, a stanza in an ode, or occasionally to close a 
period in heroic rhyme. French heroics are similar to 
this. 

3. Iambic of Five feet, or Pentameter, 

For praise j too dearly lov'd j or warm[ly sought, 
Enfee|bles all j internal strength | of thought. 

With sdljemn adlorajtion down [ they cast 

Their crowns | inwove | with am|arant | and gold 

This is the regular English hemic. It is, perhaps, the 
only measure suitable for blank verse. 

The Elegiac stanza consists of four heroics rhyming 
alternately; as, 

Enough — has Heav'n | indulg'd [ of joy | below r , 

To tempt | our tarjria'nce in J this lov'd | retreat 
Enough j has Heav'n | ordain'd j of usejful wo, 
To make j us langjuish for | a hapjpier seat. 

4, Iambic of Four feet 

Thgjoys [above | are understood 
And rel|ish'd only by | the good. 

5. Iambic of Three feet. 

Blue lightlmngs tinge | the wave. 
And thunider rends j the rock. 



PROSODY. 157 

6. Iambic of Two feet. 

Their love [ and awe : 
Supply j the law. 

7. Iambic of One foot. 

How bright, 
The light! 

The last three measures are seldom found, except in 
connexion with longer verses. 

In iambic verse, the first foot is often varied, by in- 
troducing a trochee; as, 

Planets | and suns [ run lawjless through | the-sk^'. 
By a synseresis of the two short syllables, an anapaest 
may sometimes be employed for an iambus; or a dactyl, 
for a trochee: as, 

O'er ma|n?/ a frojzen, ma ny a fl'iry alp. 

II. OF TROCHAIC VERSE: 

In Trochaic verse, the stress is laid on the odd sylla- 
bles. Single-rhymed trochaic omits the final short syl- 
lable, that it may end with a long one. This kind of 
verse is the same as iambic without the initial short syl- 
lable. Iambics and trochaics often occur in the same 
poem. 

1. Trochaic of Six feet. 

On a | mountain j stretch'dbejneatha | hoary | willow 
Lay a [ shepherd [ swain, and | view'd the.) rolling | 
billow. 

2. Trochaic of Five feet. 

Virtue's | bright'mng [ ray shall | beam for | ever, 

Single rhyme. 

Idle | after | dinner | in his | chair, 
Sat a j farmer | ruddy | fat and | fair. 

3. Trochaic of Four feet. 

Round a | holy | calm diffusing, 
Love of j peace and | lonely | musing, 
14* 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

Single rhyme. 

Restless [ mortals [ toil for | naught; 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is J sought. 

4. Trochaic of Three feet. 

When our [ hearts are | mourning* 

Single rhyme. 

In the | days of [ old, 
Stories | plainly told— 

5. Trochaic of two feet 

Fancy [ viewing 
Joys en|suing. 

Single rhyme. 

Tumult [ cease, 
Sink to | peace. 

6. Trochaic of One foot, 

Changing, 
Ranging. 

III. ANAPAESTIC VERSE. 

in Anapaestic verse the stress is laid on every third 
syllable. The first foot of an anapaestic line, may be 
an iambus, 

!• Anapaestic of Four feet. 



At the close | of the day 
And morftals the sweets 



when thg hamjlet is stilt 
of forgetfullness prove. 

2. Anapaestic of Three feet. 
I am monjarch of all [ I survey; 
My right | there is none | to dispute- 

3. Anapaestic of Two feet 
Wh&i I look [ on my boys, 
They renew J all my joys. 

4. Anapaestic of One foot* 

On the land. 
Let me stand. 



PROSODT. l&t 

IT. OF DACTYLIC VERSE. 

In pure dactylic verse, the stress is laid on the first, 
the fourth, the seventh, and the tenth syllable. Full 
dactylic generally forms triple rhyme. When one of 
the final short syllables is omitted, the rhyme is double; 
when both, single. Dactylic with single rhyme is 
the same as anapaestic without its initial short syllables. 
Dactylic measure is uncommon; and, when employed, 
is seldom perfectly regular. 

1. Dactylic of Four feet. 

Boys will anticipate | lavish and | dissipate 

All that your | busy pate f hoarded with | care; 

And, in their [ foolishness, | passion, and | mulishness f 
Charge you with | churlishness, J spurning your | 
pray J r. 

2. Dactylic of Three feet- 
Ever sing | merrily, [ merrily. 

3. Dactylic of Two feet. 

Free from sajtlety, 
Care, and anx]iety, 
Charms in vajriety, 
Fall to his | share. 

4. Dactylic of One foot, 

Fearful^, 
Tearfully. 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

APPENDIX |i 

(SYNTAX.) 
OF STYLE. 

Style is the particular manner in which a person expresses his 
conceptions by means of language. It is different from mere 
words, and is not to be regulated altogether by rules of construc- 
tion. It always has some relation to the author's peculiar man- 
ner of thinking; and, being that sort of expression which his 
thoughts most readily assume, sometimes partakes, not only of 
what is characteristic of the man, but even of national peculiari- 
ty. The words which an author employs, may be proper, and 
so constructed as to violate no rule of syntax; and yet his style 
may have great faults. 

To designate the general characters of style, such epithets as 
coneisa, diffuse, —neat, negligent, — nervous, feeble, — simple, af- 
fected, — easy, stiff,— perspicuous, obscure, — elegant, florid, — are 
employed. A considerable diversity of style, may be found in 
compositions all equally excellent in their kind. And, indeed, 
different subjects, as well as the different endowments by which 
genius is distinguished, require this diversity. But in forming 
his style, the learner should remember, that a negligent, feeble, 
affected, stiff, or obscure style, is always faulty; and that perspi- 
cuity, ease, simplicity, strength, and neatness, are qualities al- 
ways to be aimed at. 

In order to acquire a good style, the frequent practice of com- 
posing, is indispensably necessary. Without exercise, and dili- 
gent attention, rules for the attainment of this object, will be of 
no avail. When the learner has acquired such a knowledge of 
grammar, as to be in some degree qualified for the undertaking, 
ho should devote a stated portion of his time to composition. 
This exercise will bring the powers of his mind into requsition, 
in a way that is well calculated to strengthen them. And, if he 
has opportunity for reading, he may, by a diligent perusal of the 
best authors, acquire both language, taste, and sentiment; which 
ate the essential qualifications of a good writer. 

In regard to the qualities which constitute a good style, We 
ean here offer no more than a few brief hints. With respect to 
words and phrases, particular attention should be paid to purity, 
propriety, and precision; and, with respect to sentences, to pers- 
picuity, unity, and strength, 

PURITY. 

Purity of style, consists in the use of sueh words and phrases 
#nljr, as belong to the language which we write and speak?. 



APPENDIX I. 161 

L Avoid the unnecessary use of foreign words or idioms; as, 
fraicheur, hauteur, delicaiesse, politesse, noblesse: he repented kim- 
self; it serves to an excellent purpose. 

'2. Avoid obsolete words: as, whilom, erewhile, whoso, albeit, 
ccr, aforetime, methinks. 

Avoid unauthorized words: as, flutter •ation, inspectator, 
'niatical, incumberment, connexity, elecierized, martyrized. 

PROPRIETY. 

Propriety of language/consists in the selection and right con- 
struction, of such words as the best usage has appropriated to 
those ideas, which we intend to express by them. 

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions: such as, says I; 
thinks I to myself; to get into a scrape; stay here while I return. 

2. In writing prose, avoid words and phrases that are merely 
poetical: such as, morn, eve, plaint, lone, amid, oft, steepy; what 
time the winds arise. 

3. Avoid techinai terms: except where they are necessary, ia 
treating of a particular art or science. 

4. Avoid the recurrence of words in different senses, or such 
a repetition of words as^denotes paucity of language: as, "His 
own reason might have suggested better reasons."— "Gregory 

favoured the undertaking, forno other reason than this, that the 
manager, in countenance, favoured his frignd." — "I want to go 
and see what he wants." 

5. Supply words that are wanting": thus, in 3tead of "This ae- 
tion increased his former services," say, "This action increased 
the merit of his former services. " 

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions: as, "His memo- 
ry shall be lost on the earth." — "I long since learned to like 
nothing but what you do." 

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions: as, "I 
have observed that the superiority among these coffee-house po- 
liticians, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." — 
"These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's 
meaning." 

PRECISION. 

Precision consists in avoiding all superfluous words, and adapt- 
ing the expression exactly to the thought, so as to exhibit neither 
more nor less than is intended by the author. 

i. Avoid a useless tautology, either of expression or sentiment: 
as in — return again; return back again; converse together; rise 
up; fall down; enter in; a mutual likeness to each other; the latter 
end; liquid streams; grateful thanks; the last of all; throughout 
the whole book; whenever I go, he always meets me there; for 
why; because why; over head and ears; from hence; where is he' 
at? in there; nothing else but that; it is odious and hateful; his 
faithfulness and fidelity should be rewarded. 

2, Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synony- 
mous: thus, in stead of, "Though his actions and intentions wer^ 
good, he lost his character" — say, "he lost his reputation/* 



m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PERSPICUITY. 

Perspicuity consists in freedom from obscurity or ambiguity. 
It is a quality so essential, in every kind of Writing, that for the 
want of it nothing can atone. Without this, the richest orna- 
ments of style, only glimmer through the dark, and puzzle in stead 
of pleasing the reader. Perspicuity, being the most important pro- 
perty of language, and an exemption from the most embarrassing 
defects, seems even to rise to a degree of positive beaut}'. We 
are naturally pleased with a style, that frees us from all suspense 
in regard to the meaning; that carries us through the subject 
without embarrassment or confusion; and that always flows like 
a limpid stream, through which we can see to the very bottom. 

X. Adjectives, relative pronouns, participles, adverbs, and ex- 
planatory phrases, should be placed as near as possible to the 
words to which they relate, and in such a situation as the sense 
requires. The following sentences are deficient in perspicuity: — 
"By the pleasures of the imagination, I mean only such pleasures 
as arise originally from sight." — "Reverence is the veneration 
paid to superior sanctity, inter piixed with a certain degree of 
awe." — "The Romans understood liberty, at least, as well as 
we," — "Taste was never made to cater for vanity." 

2. In prose, a poetic collocation of words must be avoided. 

UNITY. 

Unity consists in keeping one object predominant throughout 
a sentence or paragraph. Every sentence, whether its parts be 
few or many, requires strict unity. 

1. Treat different topics in separate paragraphs, and distinct 
sentiments in separate sentences. 

2. In the progress of a sentence, do not desert the principal 
subject in favour of adjuncts. 

3. Good writers do not introduce parentheses, except when a 
lively remark may be thrown in, without diverting the mind too 
long from the principal subject. 

STRENGTH. 

Strength consists in giving the several words and members of 
n sentence, such an arrangement as shall bring out the sense to 
the best advantage, and present every idea in its due importance. 
A concise style is the most favourable to strength. 

1. Place the most important words in the situation in which 
they will make the strongest impression. 

2. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger; and, when 
the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the 
concluding one. 

3. When things are to be compared or contrasted, their re- 
semblance or opposition will be rendered more striking, if some 
resemblance in the language and construction, be preserved. 

4. It is, in general, ungraceful, to end a sentence with an ad- 
verb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase. 



APPENDIX II. 163 

APPENDIX It. 

(PROSODY.) 
OF POETIC DICTION. 

Poetry (as defined by Dr. Blair) "is the language of passion, 
or of enlivened imagination, formed, most commonly, into regu- 
lar numbers." The style of poetry differs, in many respects, 
from that which is commonly adopted in prose. Poetic diction 
abounds in bold figures of speech, and unusual collocations of 
words. A great part of the figures which have been treated of 
under the head of prosody, are purely poetical. The primary 
aim of a poet is, to please and to move; and, therefore, it is to 
the imagination, and the passions, that he speaks. He may, and 
he ought to have it in his view, to instruct and reform; but it is 
indirectly, and by pleasing and moving, that he accomplishes 
this end. The exterior and most obvious distinction of poetry, 
is versification; yet there are some forms of verse so loose and 
familiar, as to be hardly distinguishable from prose; and there it 
also a species of prose, so measured in its cadences, and so much 
raised in its tone, as to approach very near to poetical numbers. 

The following are some of the most striking peculiarities ia 
which the poet3 indulge, and are indulged. 

1. They often omit the ARTICLES: as, 

" YVhat dreadful pleasure! there to stand sublime, 
"Like shipwrecked mariner on desert coast!—- Beattie. 

2. They abbreviate some NOUNS: as, amaze for amaztmmt, 
declaim for acclamation, consult, for consultation, corse for corpse, 
eye or even for evening , fount fox fountain, helm for helmet, lament 
lor lamentation, morn for morning, plaint for complaint, tare* 
for target, weal for icealth. 

8. They employ several nouns that are not used in prose; a?, 
benison, boon, emprise, fane, guerdon, guise, ire, ken, lore, mud, 
sire, steed, welkin, yore. 

4. They introduce the noun self after an other noun of the 
possessive. case; as > 

"Affliction's semblance bends not o'er thy tomb, 
"Affliction's self deplores thy youthful doom/'— Byron. 
"Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's sdf" —Thomson. 



364 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

5. They place before the verb, words that usually come after 
itj and, after it, those that usually come before it: as, 

"No jealousy their dawn of love o'ereast, 
Nor blasted were their wedded days with strife." — Beattie. 
"No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets." 
"Thy chain a wretched weight shall prove/'— Lan ghorne. 
"Follows the loosen'd aggravated roar." — Thomson. 
"That purple grows the primrose pale."— Langhorne. 

6. They often place ADJECTIVES after their nouns; as, 

"Or where the gorgeous East, with richest hand, 
Show'rs on her kings barbaric, peail and gold/' — Milton. 
"Come, nymph demure, with mantle blue." 

7. They ascribe qualities to things to which they do not lite- 
racy belong; as, 

"And drowsy tinklings\u\\ the distant fo\dn."--Gray. 
"Imb.itter'd more and more from peevish day to day."— -Thorn. 
"All thin and naked to the numb cold nighC—Shakspeare. 

S. They use concrete terms to express abstract qualities; (i. e. 
adjectives for nouns;) as, 

"Earth's meanest ?on, all trembling, prostrate falls* 

And on the boundless of thy goodness calls." — Young-. 

"Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, 

Sublime or dreadful, in earth, sea, or sky, 

By chance or search was offered to his view, 

He scann'd with curious and romantic eye." — Beattie. 

"Won from the void and formless infinite." — Milton. 

9. They substitute quality for manner; (i. e. adjectives for ad- 
verbs;) as, 

"The stately-sailing swan, 
Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale; 
And, arching proud his neck, with oary feet 
Bears forward fierce, and guards his osier-isle." — Thomson. 
"Thither continual pilgrims crowded still." — Idem. 

10. They form new compound epithets; as, 

"In world-rejoicing state, it moves sublime." — Thomson. 

"The dewy-skirted clouds imbibe the sun." — Idem. 

"By brooks and groves in hollow-whispering gales. -"Idem. 

"The violet of sky-woven vest." — Langhornc. 

"A league from Epidamnum had we sailed, 

Before the a lie ays -wind' obeying deep 

Gave any tragic instance of our harm."— Shaksptare. 



APPENDIX II. lte 

11. They connect the comparative degree to the""pbsitive; as, 

"Near and more near the billows rise." — Merrick. 
"Wide and icider spreads the vale." — Dyer. 
"Wide and more wide, the o'erflowings of the mind 
Take every creature in, of every kind." — Pope. 

12. They form many adjectives in y; as, A ghamy ray,— towe- 
ry height, — sleepy hill, — steely casque, — heapy harvests, — moony 
shield, — icrithy snake, — stilly lake ; — vasty deep, — paly circlet. 

13. They employ adjectives of an abbreviated form: as, dread 
for dreadful, drear for dreary, ebon for ebony, hoar for hoary, Ions 
for lonely, scant for scanty, slope for sloping, sub miss for submis- 
sive, vermil, for vcrmillion, yon for yonder. 

14. They employ several adjectives that are not used in prose; 
as, azure, blithe, boon, dank, darkling, darksome, doughty, dun, 

fill, rife, rapt, rueful, star, sylvan, twain, wan. 

15. They employ personal PRONOUNS, and introduce their 
nouns afterwards; a3, 

"It curl'd not Tweed alone, that breeze.'' 7 — W. Scett. 
"Is it the lightning's quivering glance, 

That on the thicket streams; 
Or do they flash on spear and lance. 

The sun's retiring beams." — •Idem. 

16. They sometimes omit the relative, of the nominative case; 

'•'For is there aught in sleep can charm, the wise?" — Thomson. 

17. They omit the antecedent, or introduce it after the rela- 
tive; -as, 

"fc ho never fists, no banquet e'er enjoys." — Young* 
"Who dares think one thing and another tell, 
My soul detests him as the gates of hell." — Pope's Homer. 

18. They remove relative pronouns and other connectives, inte 
the body of their clauses; as, 

"Parts the fine locks, her graceful head that deck." — Pope. 
*'Not half so dreadful rises to the sight 
Orion's dog, the year when autumn weighs." — Thomson, 

19. They make intransitive VERBS transitive; as, 

"Awhile he stands, 
Gazing the inverted landscape, half afraid 
To meditate the blue- profound below." — Thomson* 
15 



166 English grammar. 

"Still in harmonious intercourse, they liv'd 
The rural day, and talked the flowing heart."— Idem, 

20. They give to the imperative mood the first and the third 
person; as, 

"Turn we a moment fancy's rapid flight." — Thomson. 
"Be man's peculiar work his sole delight." — Beattie. 
"And what is reason?^ Be she thus defined: 
Reason is upright stature in the soul!" — Young, 

21. They employ can, could, and would as principal verbs 
transitive; as, 

"What for ourselves we can, is always ours." 
"Who does the best his circumstance allows, 

Does well, acts nobly :^-angels could no more. 1 ' — Young. 
"What icould this man? Now upward will he soar, 

And, little less than angel, would be more." — Pope. 

22. They place the infinitive before the word on which it de 
penda; as, 

"When first thy sire to send on earth 
Virtue, his darling child, design' d." -~Gr ay. 

23. They place the auxiliary after its principal; as, 

"No longer heed the sunbeam bright 
That plays on Carron's breast he can." — Langhornt. 

24. Before verbs they sometimes arbitrarily employ or omit 
prefixes; as, begird, bedim, evanish, emove; for gird, dim, vanish, 
move:— lure, wail, wilder, reave; for allure, bewail, bewilder, bt- 
?eave. 

25. They abbreviate verbs; as, list for listen, ope for open. 

26. They employ several verbs that are not used in prose; as, 
appal, astound, brook, coioer, doff, ken, wend, ween, trow. 

27. They sometimes imitate a Greek construction of the infini- 
tive; as, 

"He knew to sing and build the lofty rhyme." 
"For not to have been dipp'd in Lethe lake, 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die."-*- Spencer. 

28. They employ the PARTICIPLES more frequently than 
prose writers, and in a construction somewhat peculiar; as, 

"He eame, and standing in the midst, explain'd 
The peace rejected, but the truce obtained, ' * *— P^ps. 



APPENDIX II 167 

"As a poor miserable captive thrall 
Comes to the place where he before had sat 
Among the prime in splendor, now dcpos d, 
Ejected, emptied , gaz'd,un pitied, shunn'd, 
A spectacle of ruin or of scorn."— Milton. 

29. They employ several ADVERBS that are not used ic 
prose; as, oft, haply, inly. 

30. They give to adverbs a peculiar location; as, 

"Peeping from forth their alleys green. " — Collins. 
"Erect the standard there of ancient night." — Milton. 
"The silence often of pure innocence 

Persuades, when speaking fails." — Shakspeare. 
"Where universal love not smiles around." — Thomson. 
"Robs me of that which not enriches him." — Shakspeare, 
*\ 

■31. They admit the introductory adverb there; as, 
"fVas nought around but images of rest."— -Thomson. 

32. They employ the CONJUNCTIONS, or— or, and ror— 
nor, as correspondents; as, 

"Or bv the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po."— Goldsmith. 
"Wealth heap'd on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys."— 

itwu u . Johns. 

Who by repentance is not satisfied, 
Is nor of heav'n, nor earth." — Shakspeare. 

S3. They often place PREPOSITIONS and their adjuncts, 
fcefore the words on which they depend; as, 

iS Against your fame with fondness hate combines; 
"The rival batters, and the lover mines."— Johnson. 

34. They sometimes place the preposition after its object; as 

"When beauty, Eden's bowers within, 

First stretch'd the arms to deeds of sin, 

When passion burn'd, and prudence slept, 

The pitying angels, bent and wept." — Hogg. 
"The Muses fair, these peaceful shades among, 

With skilful fingers sweep the trembling strings." — Lloyd. 

35. They employ INTERJECTIONS more frequently thaa 
prose writers; as, 

"O let me gazel— Of gazing there's no end. 
O let naethinkl— Thought too is wil^r'd here."— Young, 



16S 1 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

36. They emyloy antiquated words and modes of expression; 

3 

"Withouten that would come an heavier bale.' '-—Thomson. 
'lie was to tceet, a little rougish page, 

'Save sleep and play, who minded nought at all." — Idtm. 
"Not one eftsooris in view was to he found." — Id. 
"To number up the thousands dwelling bete, 

An useless were, and eke an endless task." — Id. 
■"Of clerks good plenty here you mote espy."—~Id. 
"But these I jkisserMy, with nameless numbers moe.^ — Id. 
"All careless rambling where it liked them mofit."—M. 
"Behooves you then to play your finest art.— itZ. 
"What time the sun arose on Vennachar's broad wave."-Sco/f. 
"In sooth Uvfas almost all the Shepherd knew." — Bcaitie. 
"There must thou wake peiforce thy Doric quill." 
Whose Hires j pefchanee, in Fairyland might dwell." — Beattic. 
"Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid lore, 

With patience many a year she bore."—- Gray. 
''•While vice pours forth the troubled streams of hell, 

The ichioli, howe'er disguis'd, at last with dole,. 

Will through the tortiu'd breast their fiery torrent roll."— 

Thorn. 
"Him thought he by the brook of Cherith stood."— Milton. 
lt l found not what metkought 1 wanted still."— Idem. 
"Of oilier creatures as him pleases best, 
Wherever placed, let him dispose." — Id. 



THE END. 



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